What influences our social identity? — Paper 2 — IGCSE Sociology 0495 topical questions

Question 1

According to official figures, crime rates vary between different social groups. Juvenile delinquency, for example, is particularly common …

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘juvenile delinquency’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. young criminals. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. deviant acts by young people that would be viewed as crimes if they were adults. 3(b) Describe two reasons why crime rates for older people are low. 4 Possible answers: • older people may have more to lose i.e. employment, housing, family etc.; • older people are less susceptible to peer pressure than young people looking to increase their status; • older people are rarely represented as criminal role models in the media, unlike younger people i.e. music videos and gang culture; • a lot of people ‘grow out of crime’, it is merely a phase in their lives when they are younger Matza and drift theory; • older people are less likely to be targeted and stereotyped as criminals by the police; • the courts are unlikely to picture older people as typical criminals and therefore may be more likely to find them not guilty; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how surveillance can be used to target people to prevent crime. 6 Surveillance could be considered in terms of formal agents i.e. the police or informal agents i.e. neighbourhood/community watch schemes. Similarly, specific examples of surveillance may be referred to or a more general approach to the reasons for using surveillance i.e. deterrence may be taken. All are fine to credit. Possible answers: • computer surveillance i.e. monitoring the websites people visit, e- mails etc.; • telephone surveillance – monitoring people's phone calls and communication; • surveillance cameras i.e. CCTV in the streets, identity card systems etc. to keep an eye on people; • using social media contacts to track and monitor connections between people; • electronic tagging of people; • covert surveillance i.e. undercover police officers infiltrating groups and people under suspicion; • physical surveillance by eye – neighbourhood watch, for example, looking out for suspicious people; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how surveillance can be used to prevent crime and may talk about e.g. ‘spying on people’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the ways surveillance can be used to prevent crime. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Electronic surveillance of people's internet and social media usage is increasingly common in the digital world and allows the authorities to track people's digital footprint and thus monitor behaviour in order to prevent crime’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 3(d) Explain why Marxists think we have crime and deviance in society. 8 The Marxist explanations of crime and deviance may refer to structural inequalities in terms of pay and status under capitalism or to more recent versions of Marxist theory that combine insights from traditional Marxism with labelling theory (i.e. Neo Marxism). Possible answers: • Marxists believe laws are made by the state in order to protect the interests of the ruling class and that therefore the working class are criminalised by those in positions of power; • relative deprivation is commonplace in a capitalist system and is thought by Marxists to explain criminal and deviant behaviour as poorer people perceive it as unfair that others in society have more than they do which breeds resentment; • marginalisation – poorer people in society are thought by Marxists to have no outlet through which to portray their anger and frustrations at the unfair society they live in which can lead to protests via rioting and looting; • it is typically powerless social groups in society who are targeted by middle class institutions such as the police – high stop and search rates for some ethnic minorities, for example; • material deprivation – poverty and a lack of money can help to explain many crimes committed for financial gain; • crime as a reaction to the oppression and exploitation experienced by the lower social classes in capitalist societies; • crime and deviance may be committed as resistance to the structural inequalities in society i.e. youth sub-cultures; other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why Marxists think we have crime and deviance. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘because people are poor’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why Marxists think we have crime and deviance. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘Marxists believe crime and deviance are often reactions to the inequalities experienced by poorer people in society’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/ explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why Marxists think we have crime and deviance in society and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘Exploitation and structural inequalities are inherent features of capitalist society and breed anger and resentment in the working classes. This can lead to crime and deviance both for financial gain due to relative deprivation and to express their dissatisfaction with the system’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is criminal behaviour a way for males to prove their 15 masculinity? Candidates may focus on criminal behaviour generally in their answer or discuss specific criminal acts in order to evidence their points. Possible answers: For: • the most dominant form of masculinity valued in most societies is hegemonic masculinity and therefore males are encouraged from an early age to be strong, not show emotion, be competitive and to use violence to solve problems. Much of this behaviour is akin to criminality; • through the socialisation process boys learn how important it is to be perceived as masculine by others – committing acts of crime can be one way to prove this; • males may be labelled as effeminate or gay if they do not conform to society's expectations of masculinity and could then be subject to negative sanctions – one way to try and avoid this is to commit acts of criminality; • feminists believe that many acts of crime against women i.e. physical and sexual abuse, are means through which males are able to assert and prove their masculinity; 3(e) • rites of passage and initiation ceremonies that are commonplace in most gangs involve high levels of violence and are typically committed by males who must prove their masculinity to others; • lower levels of informal social control for males than females means they have more opportunities to be criminal and so to prove their masculinity; • other reasonable response. Against: • if all males were subject to the need to prove their masculinity then all males would commit crime – the majority of males, however, are law abiding; • Marxist explanations involving ideas about relative deprivation, exploitation and structural inequalities may be more useful in terms of explaining crime and deviance; • labelling theory's ideas such as police targeting and stereotyping leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy may be more useful for explaining why people commit crime; • poor or inadequate socialisation (New Right perspective) may better explain crime and deviance than pressures to be masculine; • masculinity cannot explain the crimes committed by females; • cybercrimes and other white collar crimes are difficult to link to notions of masculinity; • a lot of crime is committed for fun/thrill seeking behaviour – Postmodernism; • many crimes are committed because the perpetrator has had the opportunity i.e. fraud, nothing to do with masculinity; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which committing crimes allows males to prove their masculinity. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. Men commit crimes of violence to show that they are tough. Gang crime is a good example of crimes committed by males to look masculine. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. masculinity refers to the attitudes and behaviour associated with being a man, in the question. 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which committing crimes allows males to prove their masculinity. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. Men use crime as a way to prove they are real men and to avoid being referred to as feminine. Males are socialised to be unemotional and physically strong and so criminal behaviour is just an extension of these learnt norms etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which committing crimes allows males to prove their masculinity. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. despite some crimes being committed by males in order to prove their masculinity; this is not true for them all and cannot explain the offending rates of females. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which committing crimes allows males to prove their masculinity. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of crime being linked to masculinity, citing some of the examples given.

Question 2

Formal education in the world today takes many forms. For some sociologists it allows people to better their life chances whereas for other…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘formal education’? 2 Formal education takes place in classrooms where there is a set syllabus and set content to be taught and learnt. One mark for partial definition, e.g. what you’re taught in schools. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. learning that is pre-determined and assessed formally through an examination system. 2(b) Describe two examples of the culture of masculinity that may explain the 4 educational under-achievement of boys. Candidates will describe two different aspects of the culture of masculinity – norms and values that involve supposedly masculine characteristics, e.g. toughness. Possible answers: • Focus on sport rather than academic study and learning; • Not enjoying school and so developing anti-school values; • Truanting lessons to play with friends; • Being rude and aggressive towards teachers; • Avoiding work, not revising for tests and so falling into the lower sets and streams; • Picking on and making fun of those students who do choose to work hard; • Being involved in delinquency and crime outside school; • Forming an anti-school sub-culture in order to gain status with their peers; • Proving masculinity through deviant acts; • Peer group as hugely important – gaining approval from peers is more important than the value of education, e.g. peer pressure; • Other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how schools can be ethnocentric. 6 Candidates should show an understanding of different ways that schools can be ethnocentric – seeing other cultures from the point of view of your own - so that the other culture is devalued. Possible answers: • Discrimination in schools – allocating ethnic minority pupils to lower sets and streams; • Teacher stereotyping/labelling – they may assume students from some ethnic minorities are unable to do well academically; • The curriculum may be biased towards the majority culture e.g. through the content of literature, history, national identity etc. – this tells the pupils from the minority groups that their culture is of less value; • School authorities may not deal with racism by other pupils against the minority, treating it as unimportant or over exaggerated; • Lack of ethnic minority teachers as role models; • Institutional racism – schools can be ethnocentric through curriculum structures and teachings, e.g. content of history syllabus; • Other reasonable response. Band 0 (0) No creditworthy response. Band 1 (1–3) Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how schools can be ethnocentric. Responses may be short and un-/underdeveloped. Answers may be descriptive. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘Schools teach towards the ethnic majority and teachers favour them.’ Band 2 (4–6) A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how schools can be ethnocentric. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected. Candidates may discuss e.g. ‘the learning of history and literature, lack of role models, teacher labelling etc.’ At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 2(d) Explain why some students join anti-school sub-cultures. 8 Candidates should show understanding of the various reasons why some students join anti-school sub-cultures. Expect an accurate identification of the types of students this is most likely to apply to, e.g. working class, male and ethnic minority. Candidates may talk about trends to do with ethnicity, gender and social class or may approach the question in more general terms. Possible reasons: • Working class students typically do not do as well in education as those in the higher classes – anti-school sub-culture is a way of fighting back against capitalist oppression, e.g. Marxism; • Boys are less likely than girls to conform at school and to value education. They therefore may use anti-school sub-cultures as a way to have fun with their friends; • Ethnic minorities may feel excluded from the school system as it does not reflect their culture or heritage – ethnocentrism; • Peer pressure in schools is often a key reason for the educational performance of students and may lead to anti-school sub-cultures forming in order to conform; • Setting and streaming are often very influential in terms of the achievements of students, categorising some as ‘winners’ and some as ‘losers’: those in the lower sets are more likely to form anti-school sub- cultures as they don’t see the point in education; • Teacher labelling may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy for students, e.g. racism/sexism and may cause anti-school sub-cultures to form; • Anti-school sub-cultures may be a means for students to gain status in schools; • The curriculum – this is thought by many to be middle class and white biased (ethnocentric curriculum) and thus may account for differential performance of students and the formation of anti-school sub-cultures; • Other reasonable response. Band 0 (0) No creditworthy response. Band 1 (1–3) Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why some students join anti-school sub-cultures. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘some pupils don’t like school’ without justification. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 (4–6) Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why some students join anti-school sub-cultures. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Answers may concentrate on only a few factors, such as ‘lack of status’ or ‘teacher labelling and stereotypes’ and so be a little narrow. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed. 2(d) Band 3 (7–8) Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why some students join anti-school sub-cultures and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Clear trends in the types of students that join anti-school sub-cultures relating to ethnicity, gender and social class are clear to see, which suggests school factors have an important role to play in this. Some students feel undervalued in school and so look to the sub-culture to provide them with status. Others use it as a way of making school more fun. For others, they do not believe they can achieve in education because of teacher negative labels and low sets and thus the sub-culture becomes a safe haven for them’. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent does the education system help the ruling class maintain 15 their power in society? Candidates should show an awareness of the various ways the education system helps the ruling class maintain their power in society. It is likely that students will engage with the functionalist/Marxist (consensus/conflict) debate, although they need not use these terms explicitly within their answers. Possible answers: For • Marxists believe that education instils the ideology of the ruling class into students and thus this becomes the norm (false class consciousness); • Working class children are taught a set of values that will ensure they become good workers for the capitalist system, conforming not rebelling; • The hidden curriculum ensures children learn to do as they are told, accept boredom and conform to authority – ensuring they are ready for work in the capitalist system; • The children of the ruling class typically attend different schools to the lower classes, they are privately educated which makes it easier to gain places at the top universities and then the best paying, elite jobs; • Old boy networks and networks of privilege can be passed down through the social closure operated by many elite schools and businesses (Bourdieu social capital); • Private education allows wealthy parents to buy their children success and privilege (Bourdieu economic and cultural capital); • Setting and streaming often reflects class differences; • Teacher labelling – working class students may be thought of and treated differently to middle/upper class children, thus affecting future positions in society – this may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy; • Working class students may be more likely to follow a vocational programme of study, whereas the higher classes have a more academic path; • Other reasonable response. 2(e) Against • Feminists believe that education inculcates patriarchal values rather than capitalist ones; • Functionalists believe that education performs vital functions for individuals and society, such as socialisation and social control; it does not indoctrinate pupils; • Education is meritocratic, based on principles of equality that ensure that all students have the same chances to succeed, e.g. through the comprehensive system; • Education allows for social mobility and therefore people from all social groups, regardless of background, can be successful in life; • Positive discrimination, compensatory education and scholarship systems all exist in order to support pupils from less privileged backgrounds to do well in education; • Different types of education exist for different people, allowing all to be successful, e.g. academic and vocational; • Students may reject negative teacher labels through a self-negating prophecy and thus the education system will not help the ruling class to maintain power; • In contemporary modern industrial societies it is achieved status that is more important than ascribed status in terms of achieving power, therefore the education system itself does not help the ruling class to maintain their power; • Other reasonable response. Band 0 (0) No creditworthy response. Band 1 (1–4) Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense, showing limited knowledge of whether the education system helps the ruling class to maintain their power in society. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘some schools get better examination results than others’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘the ruling class are those people in society with the most power and influence’, in the question. Band 2 (5–8) In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the education system helps the ruling class to maintain their power in society. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points, e.g. ‘wealthy parents can buy their children an education and send them to private schools where they are more likely to get good examination results and be successful in life’. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. 2(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 (9–12) Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of whether the education system helps the ruling class to maintain their power in society. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two- sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Candidates may outline that e.g. ‘there are different opinions within sociology as to whether the education system helps the ruling class to maintain their power in society. Marxists see education as a means for the elite to keep their powerful positions in society through the teaching of capitalist values and the hidden curriculum, whereas functionalists believe education is available equally to all and is meritocratic’. Band 4 (13–15) Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether the education system helps the ruling class to maintain their power in society. There will be a strong grasp of the argument, as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates may outline and discuss different points, e.g. ‘hidden curriculum, indoctrination, selective education, hierarchy’ etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether the education system helps the ruling class to maintain their power in society, citing some of the examples given. Section C: Crime, deviance and social control

Question 3

Today’s media are increasingly difficult to control. Media representations of ethnic minorities are often stereotypical and propaganda is s…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘propaganda’? 2 Use of the media to influence people to accept a particular point of view. One mark for partial definition. e.g. bias in the media. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. a one sided version of events e.g. Nazi Germany. 4(b) Describe two stereotypes of ethnic minorities seen in the media. 4 Candidates will describe two stereotypes of ethnic minorities seen in the media. Candidates may refer to ethnic minority representations holistically or give examples of stereotypes specific to particular ethnic minority groups. Possible answers: • Under-representation/invisibility – ethnic minorities are rarely seen in lead roles and parts in the media and are very under-represented; • Negatively stereotyped as different/dangerous etc.; • Black people represented as being criminal or deviant or involved with gangs; • Black people as sports players rather than academics; • Links with religious extremism and terrorism; • Asians with large extended families, owning corner shops etc.; • Tokenism – when an ethnic minority appears in the media, this may be an attempt by the media organisation to create the impression of equality; • Binary oppositions between ethnic majority and ethnic minority groups; • As illegal immigrants; • Those from developing countries as living in poverty and in need of charity; • The dangerous savage, e.g. the Indians in cowboy films; • Black people shown as entertainers – music, dance, comedy; • Non-white women represented as sexually exotic – dangerous and alluring and outspoken; • The rich, evil tyrant – e.g. Idi Amin in ‘The Last King of Scotland’; • Other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how globalisation is changing media content. 6 Candidates need to demonstrate an understanding of the way globalisation is changing media content. Candidates may talk generally about globalisation or more specifically about particular examples from the media. Possible answers: • Globalisation leads to instant media content being available, unfolding international news content can be seen as it happens; • Citizen journalism means that the global audience can create media content; • The new media allows for a sense of a common culture and belonging, not to a national identity, but to a global village e.g. the growth of a global culture shown in media content; • New norms and values can be seen and shared through the global media leading to changing social attitudes and social change; • Advertising can be communicated on a global level and products are increasingly made to appeal to a global audience; • Local cultures may be lost by Western culture dominating the media; • A wider range of global products are available to, and can be consumed, by the audience i.e. Nollywood, Bollywood, Bhangra music etc.; • Other reasonable response. Band 0 (0) No creditworthy response. Band 1 (1–3) Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how globalisation is changing media content. Responses may be short and un-/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks) candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘showing things from other countries.’ Band 2 (4–6) A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how globalisation is changing media content. For example, discussing the diversity of media content today, changing norms and values and alternative ideologies. Sociological language and concepts should be expected. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well- developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 4(d) Explain why Governments try to control the content of the media. 8 Candidates should show an awareness of why Governments try to control the content of the media. This may be a generic discussion or may focus on specific Governments and their controls over media content. Possible answers: • To create a sense of national unity; • State-owned media can be used for propaganda so the audience will accept the world view being presented and not allowing access to alternative views; • In order to present the Government and its policies in a positive light and maintain power; • To control broadcast content, e.g. to have the power not to show stories or issues that would portray the Government in a negative light - censorship; • Alternative views or values tend to be marginalised and/or ridiculed in the media through the images seen and the language used which prevents resistance to the Government; • The Government can use the media to demonise and scapegoat certain social groups in order to justify oppressive policies or actions; • To protect the audience from unsuitable content, e.g. pornography, drug taking etc.; • To protect state secrets and publics security, e.g. through legislation such as The Official Secrets Act; • The media and therefore the Government can control the audience’s feelings and thoughts through selective representations and censorship; • Other reasonable response. Band 0 (0) No creditworthy response. Band 1 (1–3) Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why Governments try to control the content of the media. Candidates may not really understand what is meant by Government and control. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘to influence how the media think’, without justification/explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 (4–6) Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why Governments try to control the content of the media. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the reasons, e.g. dominant ideology being maintained, to protect the public from undesirable content etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed. 4(d) Band 3 (7–8) Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why Governments try to control the content of the media and will be well developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented, e.g. censorship, diverting attention away from the serious issues in society, propaganda etc. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent do the media shape the audience’s attitudes and 15 behaviour? Candidates will need to look at the ways in which the media can shape the attitudes and behaviour of the audience. A wide range of different media may be considered. The argument that the media does not influence the audience’s attitudes and behaviour could also be discussed in evaluation. Examples may be used to strengthen the points made. Possible answers: For • Advertising is all around us and is used to try and persuade people to spend their money and consume material goods leading to the creation of a consumer culture and an acceptance of capitalism; • Prevalence of new and social media means, for postmodernists, that the media is all around us, and with things ‘going viral’, this will affect attitudes and behaviour; • Imitation – the audience may copy what they see in the media, e.g. Grand Theft Auto video game copy catting incident in Japan, school shootings in America etc.; • The media can be used to set the agenda and thus tell the public what is important in society, influencing attitudes and behaviour; • News values in the media determine media content and this can determine how the audience think and behave • Biased media reporting, propaganda and censorship controls content of the media and thus affects the thoughts and actions of the audience; • Marxists believe that the media conveys the dominant ideology to the masses and ensures that ruling class power is maintained; • Feminists believe that the media conveys a patriarchal ideology to the audience and thus supports gendered inequalities in society; • Seeing and hearing the same messages and images on a regular basis in the media makes the audience more likely to be affected by and accept them - cultural effects model; • The use of role models in the media are a big influence on the audience and so can shape attitudes and behaviour, e.g. attitudes to drugs, fashion sense, language used etc.; • Media can often be used to shape gender identity, perhaps also used as part of primary socialisation; • The hypodermic syringe theory and other passive audience models argue that the audience are directly affected by what they see and the media; • Moral panics and the creation of folk devils in the media can shape the audience’s attitudes and behaviour towards crime and deviance; • Other reasonable response. 4(e) Against • The audience do not have to accept and believe the media version of events – negotiated and oppositional readings frequently occur (Hall); • Active audience models, such as the uses and gratifications theory, argue that it is the public who decide the effects the media have upon them: it is about choice; • The two-step flow model indicates that it is opinion leaders, rather than the media, that influences the audience’s attitudes and opinions; • In the postmodern world media outlets are everywhere and there is a diverse range of material and viewpoints for the audience to choose from, therefore the range of beliefs available to the audience are vast and diverse; • The new media allow the audience to be actively involved in media content through interactivity, therefore the role of the media in shaping attitudes and behaviour can be questioned – user-generated content etc.; • Agencies of socialisation, such as the family and the peer group, may be more influential in shaping attitudes and behaviour than the media; • If the media were solely responsible for creating attitudes and determining how people behave then there would be high levels of consensus across the globe – this is not the case, with a wide range of alternative ideologies being in existence; • Other reasonable response. Band 0 (0) No creditworthy response. Band 1 (1–4) Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of whether the media shape the audience’s attitudes and behaviour. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. the audience buy what they see in adverts. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, i.e. attitudes are how we think and behaviour is how we act, in the question. Band 2 (5–8) In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the media shape the audience’s attitudes and behaviour. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Candidates may give examples of TV shows, newspapers and films and how these may affect the audience, e.g. children copying the violence they see in computer games. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. 4(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 (9–12) Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of whether the media shape the audience’s attitudes and behaviour. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may discuss media effects theories, such as the hypodermic needle and the uses and gratifications model. They may also give specific examples, such as voting patterns, body image and advertising. Concepts such as imitation and role modelling may be referred to. There will be a two-sided response, but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 (13–15) Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether the media shape the audience’s attitudes and behaviour. There will be a strong grasp of the argument, as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates may refer to the idea that the audience are all individuals and thus be aware that it is impossible to generalise the effects of the media on attitudes and behaviour. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether the media shape the audience’s attitudes and behaviour, citing some of the examples given.

Question 4

Acts of crime and deviance are often associated with youth sub-cultures. Controlling crime in society is difficult to do. Some sociologists…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘deviance’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. illegal activities. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. actions that go against the norms and values of society e.g. committing a crime. 3(b) Describe two problems with official crime statistics. 4 Possible answers: • someone has to realise that a crime has taken place for it to be reported to the police i.e. murder of a homeless man; • the crime committed has to be reported to the police to appear in the OCS and this doesn't always happen i.e. due to fear of reprisals, embarrassment, knowing the perpetrator etc.; • crimes that involve insured articles are the most likely to be reported to the police which will skew the picture of crime seen in the OCS; • there is a large 'dark figure of crime' that is not known about and therefore does not appear in the OCS; • crimes have to be recorded by the police to appear in the OCS – police discretion means that this doesn't always happen; • different police forces and police officers will deal with crime differently meaning that the OCS's picture of crime may not be valid; • police targeting strategies affect which crimes are concentrated on; • crime statistics may be manipulated by the government/ruling class and therefore may be biased and so do not show a valid picture of all crimes committed; • official crime statistics often focus on the visible, street crimes typically associated with the working class rather than more middle class white- collar/corporate crimes therefore are not accurate; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how informal agencies of social control prevent crime. 6 Candidates need to show an understanding of how informal agencies of social control such as the media, family and education can prevent crime. It is likely that several different agencies will be discussed but candidates could answer the question by focusing on just one informal agency. This would not be sufficient range, however, to score full marks. Alternatively, answers may look at informal methods of control in a more general way in terms of processes. Possible answers: • informal agencies cause individuals to internalise society's norms and values and to conform to these therefore preventing crime; • informal agencies of social control can use punishments and negative sanctions to prevent individuals committing crime; • informal agencies can use praise and positive sanctions to encourage individuals to follow the law and so prevent crime; • the media – reporting about crime in the media shows individuals the negative consequences of their actions if they choose to commit a crime; • religion has many rules that believers must follow and these ensure that morals are taught and so help to prevent crime; • the workplace will dismiss or discipline individuals who break the law; • the family impose punishments to prevent illegal behaviour and use primary socialisation to teach people right from wrong; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how informal agencies of social control prevent crime and may talk about e.g. they give punishments to people committing crimes. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of awareness of how informal agencies of social control prevent crime and may talk about sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. The media use role models to socialise individuals into the right ways of behaving in society. This is then imitated in society and so serves to prevent crime. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 3(d) Explain why youth sub-cultures are often linked to crime. 8 Candidates may talk about youth sub-cultures generally (i.e. style based, criminal, deviant etc.) or may focus on particular examples such as the Skins, gangs etc. Possible answers: • young people are most susceptible to peer pressure and so join a sub- culture where crime is the norm; • youth sub-cultures may be a form of resistance to a perceived inequality in society – crime can therefore be justified e.g. the Skins resisting class inequalities through crime and deviance; • youth sub-cultures are perceived to be exciting and thrill seeking – committing crimes may simply be an extension of this for young people (Postmodernism); • youth sub-cultures may be joined when young people experience status frustration in society – the group allows for status to be achieved in alternative ways (Cohen); • youth sub-cultures may offer an alternative set of values to mainstream society which appeal to young people – this may involve criminal or deviant behaviour i.e. taking drugs; • youth sub-cultures can be used as part of the illegitimate opportunity structure when legitimate opportunities for success in society are limited e.g. gangs – this is particularly true for working class youth (Cloward and Ohlin); • youth sub-cultures are often linked with being masculine – young boys demonstrate toughness through crime in order to prove how ‘manly’ they are, this is part of a youth’s status (Miller focal concerns); • criminal activities of ethnic minority youth sub-cultures may be as a response to racism in society e.g. riots; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why youth sub- cultures are linked to crime. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. youths want money for alcohol and drugs stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] 8 Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why youth sub-cultures are linked to crime. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. Youth sub-cultures may form in working class areas where there are few jobs. OR Youth sub- cultures offer excitement through committing crimes for young people who are bored etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed /explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why youth sub-cultures are linked to crime and will be well developed and explained, e.g. It is typically young people from ethnic minorities and the working class who join a sub-culture. Legitimate opportunities for success may be limited in society and so they use sub- cultures to gain status – gangs are a good example of this. Sometimes they can be used to make a living, by selling drugs for example, as the young people in the sub-cultures are experiencing material deprivation. Cloward and Ohlin found this in their study of the illegitimate opportunity structure. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent do prisons fail to deter people from committing crime? Candidates should discuss the various ways that prisons may not deter people from committing crime. This may include how other agencies /sanctions e.g. the family are more effective deterrents. They may then consider why prison may well be an effective deterrent as evaluation. Possible answers: FOR: • re-offending rates are high therefore prison cannot be that much of a deterrent; • some people see prison as an 'easy ride' and therefore are not worried about being sent there; • for some people prison provides food, shelter and heating which is better than life on the outside therefore it is not a deterrent at all; • prison can be referred to as a 'university of crime' – criminals become better criminals when inside – therefore it is not a deterrent at all; • some people want to go to prison in order to access the comprehensive counselling, rehabilitation, treatment, education, training programmes that are available – prison therefore is not a deterrent; • punishments that involve some kind of 'putting things right' i.e. community service, are thought by many to be more effective than just locking someone away as they understand the consequence of their actions; • many people believe that informal agents of social control i.e. the family, are more effective deterrents to crime than impersonal formal agents such as prisons; • other sanctions such as surveillance, curfews, community sentences, fines and tags are thought by many to be more effective deterrents than prison as they carry shame and humiliation and/or financial implications with them which prevents further re-offending; • more serious sanctions such as the death penalty are thought by many to be a far greater deterrent to crime than prison; • other reasonable response. AGAINST: • prisons act as a deterrent because by sending someone there other people can see the consequence of criminal actions and so are put off from offending themselves; • prisons incapacitate people and this is a deterrent as people do not want to lose their freedom; • rehabilitation programmes are often a compulsory part of prison life and this may put people off offending as they do not want to be a part of this; • prisons are often portrayed as violent and dangerous places (e.g. in the media) and people are scared of this therefore this acts as a deterrent to crime; • people do not want to be unable to spend time with their loved ones and so prison acts as a deterrent; • a prison sentence brings with it a prison/criminal record and people are aware that this will make finding work difficult therefore this acts as a deterrent to crime; • other reasonable response. 3(e) Band 0 [0 marks] 15 No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of whether prisons fail to deter people from committing crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. Prisons are shown as easy places to be in the media. OR Prisons teach you how to be a better criminal. Lower in the band (1–2 marks) expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. fail to deter means to not put you off something, in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether prisons fail to deter people from committing crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. prisons aren't tough enough on prisoners and they provide food and shelter and therefore aren't seen as a negative sanction by criminals etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of whether prisons fail to deter people from committing crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. prisons are seen by some as the ultimate sanction but others say that the rehabilitation and education/training programs offered by prisons means they are made too attractive to deter people from committing crime. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well- developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. 3(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether prisons fail to deter people from committing crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether prisons fail to deter people from committing crime, citing some of the examples given.

Question 5

Researching why crime is committed is a complex issue due to the many possible explanations. One explanation is status frustration. This is…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘status frustration’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘annoyed by your low status’. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘when people are unable to achieve the socially accepted goals due to their position in society’. 2 3(b) Describe two reasons why the police might not record a crime that has been reported to them. Possible answers: • police may be under pressure to focus on particular crimes and so are reluctant to report crimes that aren’t in this category – police targets and quotas; • the police may believe the crime to be too petty to bother recording it; • the police may feel it is a domestic incident that should be dealt with by the individuals involved and so don’t record it; • the police may be doubtful of the credibility of the person reporting the crime and so don’t record it; • police need evidence that the crime reported is indeed a crime, if not then they are unlikely to record it e.g. theft rather than lost property; • police discretion means that the police have the power to decide whether something should be recorded as a crime or not; • the police may not believe that they are able to solve the crime and so do not record it e.g. cybercrime; • the police may be corrupt and so do not record the crime in order to protect a powerful and influential individual/group; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4 Question Answer Marks 3(c) Explain how the media can create deviancy amplification. Possible answers: • media exaggeration, glamorisation and sensationalism leads to people copying what they see so leading to deviancy amplification; • criminals believe that there are certain crimes they are able to get away with due to its representation in the media and so this leads to more crime being committed; • creating folk devils e.g. young people, drug addicts, etc. in the media leads to them feeling frustrated/alienated and therefore committing more crime; • moral panics and stigmatisation e.g. the mods and the rockers – stereotypical reporting leads to the ‘criminals’ acting in the way they have been portrayed in the media and so more crime is committed – labelling theory and the self-fulfilling prophecy; • moral panics – the media predict crime and therefore cause the police/authorities to look out for that crime so seemingly more crime has been committed; • media reports of crime can lead to a bigger police presence e.g. with the mods and rockers in Clacton (Cohen) which increases the risk of confrontation and therefore increases the likelihood of crime; • scapegoating – some social groups are blamed for society’s problems by the media and so it is unsurprising that they turn to crime as a reaction to this e.g. ethnic minorities; • Marxism – the media promotes consumption as desirable, those that cannot afford to buy the consumer goods seen may turn to crime instead; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media can create deviancy amplification and may talk about e.g. ‘the media show some people in a bad way so they can’t get jobs and turn to crime’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 6 Question Answer Marks 3(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the media can create deviancy amplification. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘the media create folk devils who are blamed for certain crimes. This can lead to the group or individual feeling status frustration and therefore turning to crime as a response’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. Question Answer Marks 3(d) Explain why males commit more crime than females. Possible answers: • differential socialisation – processes such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley) mean that boys and girls grow up with very different gender identities – males are tougher, more independent and so more likely to commit crime; • differential social control – males tend to have less social control imposed upon them than females – this gives them more opportunities to commit crime; • masculinity – males are often under pressure to prove their masculinity – being criminal is one way to do this e.g. male peer group pressure; • breadwinner role – males may feel pressure to provide for their partner/family and if they do not have a job or enough money they may suffer from status frustration and thus turn to instrumental crime; • males are more susceptible to peer pressure and so could join an anti-school sub-culture or a deviant group where criminality is normal; • males are more likely to join gangs than females – gangs are based upon criminal behaviour, indeed this gains members status; • opportunity – some crimes, such as corporate crime, are committed in the work place – as these are typically male dominated it is easier for the male to commit the crime; • males are thought to be naturally more aggressive than females, e.g. testosterone levels, and so may be more likely to commit crime; • media role models – many of these for males engage in criminal behaviour and this is not sanctioned, rather it can bring positive rewards – imitation may occur; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why males commit more crime than females. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘men are more aggressive’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 8 Question Answer Marks 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than females. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘males commit more crime because they have been socialised in their families to be tough and independent’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than females and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘males commit more crime than females because of the pressure on them to prove their masculinity. If they don’t do this then they can be labelled as effeminate by their peers. One way to do this is to commit crime. Young males are far more likely to be gang members than young females and may engage in criminal rites of passages such as robbing someone in order to gain status and show their masculinity’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks 3(e) To what extent do victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime? Possible answers: FOR: • they uncover unreported (hidden) crimes that the formal agents do not know about and so are more valid than the OCS; • asking people what crimes they have been a victim of is likely to provoke a true response as there is no harm/threat to the respondent; • national victim surveys such as the BCS/CSEW are now so well thought of that they are published alongside the OCS by the government in order to show a more accurate picture of crime; • victim surveys are typically completed using interviews, allowing the researcher to gain a rapport with the respondent and so get them to open up honestly about things/crimes; • victim surveys offer full confidentiality to the respondent and so encourage truthful/valid answers; • local victim surveys, such as The Islington Survey, allow for researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of the nature of crime victims in a local area; • victim surveys can call into question the validity of the patterns and trends seen in the OCS e.g. the BCS has shown that the group thought to be the most criminal in society (young working class males) are also the most likely to be victims of crime; • victim surveys can show those crimes that have not been recorded by the police, so giving a more accurate picture of crime and uncovering more of the ‘dark figure’; • feminist researchers believe that local victim surveys help to uncover the true extent of the victimisation that women have to endure; • other reasonable response. 15 Question Answer Marks 3(e) AGAINST: • victim surveys cannot cover all types of crimes – they do not, for example, cover victimless crimes such as drug use; • victim surveys do not usually cover crimes committed against children as children are not normally the respondents in this research method – therefore they still do not reveal the full, true picture; • some respondents may be unwilling to reveal personal information about themselves to a researcher e.g. victims of sexual assault or abuse, therefore the picture of crime that is produced is still not accurate; • this method relies on the memory of the respondents and so is unlikely to be fully accurate as people will forget things; • national victim surveys will inevitably generalise the picture of crime and are therefore thought by some sociologists to be of little use in really understanding crime and its victims; • local victim surveys are typically based upon a small and unrepresentative sample and are criticised by many sociologists as being atypical and not generalisable; • white collar and corporate crime is likely to be under-represented in victim surveys as those involved may not know that they were the victims of crime; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘they find out about crimes the police don’t know about’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘victim surveys are where people are asked what crimes they have been a victim of’. Question Answer Marks 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘not everyone reports a crime committed against them to the police and victim surveys are a good way to find out about these’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite the OCS being recognised as the most easily accessible source of information on crime, victim surveys are thought by many sociologists to produce a far more valid picture due to the uncovering of the dark figure of crime’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of the usefulness of the victim survey in providing an accurate picture of crime, citing some of the examples given.

Question 6

According to official crime statistics an individual’s social characteristics can affect whether they become a criminal. Some sociologists …

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘internet crime’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. fraud Two marks for clear definition e.g. illegal act using the web, often referred to as a cybercrime, e.g. identity theft 3(b) Describe two criminal sub-cultures 4 Local examples may well be seen here – these should be duly credited. Possible answers: • gangs e.g. a group of people who use violence and intimidation to commit crime; • mafia – a highly organised criminal sub-culture, often involved in violent crime; • drug dealers – money is made through the illegal drugs trade; • youth sub-cultures such as the Skinheads who engaged in criminal behaviour; • Cloward and Ohlin – illegitimate opportunity structure – successful criminal role models exist in a community to train others to be successful criminals; • sub-cultures on the internet that commit crime e.g. the dark net, terrorist groups etc.; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two) 3(c) Explain how the police can cause deviancy amplification. 6 Deviancy Amplification – when responses to crime and/or deviance by the police lead to greater deviance occurring in society. Possible answers: • police stereotypes and labels of criminals means that some people are more likely to be the subject of police scrutiny than others and this can lead to increased deviance as a response (self-fulfilling prophecy); • police targeting – certain areas are targeted and focused on by the police and thus some groups of people are more likely to be arrested than others – this can lead to anger and frustration and thus increased levels of deviance; • moral panics – such as the Mods and Rockers (Cohen) have shown how the actions of the police can lead to increased levels of deviance amongst the targeted groups of people; • stop and search rates – these are higher for some social groups than others and this can lead to accusations of police bias/riots; • institutional racism and the canteen culture – the police are sometimes accused of racist behaviour and this can then lead to angry retaliation and thus deviancy amplification e.g. rioting; • Jock Young’s study ‘The Drugtakers’, found that police actions and stereotypes led to more illegal drug taking behaviour and so increased the problem; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question and may talk about e.g. ‘police treat some criminals badly and so others get involved in criminal behaviour’. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the question. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘police targeting of powerless groups in society through increased surveillance and high stop and search rates is one reason. The reactions of these groups are unlikely to be positive and may result in feelings of marginalisation and frustration that lead to increased levels of deviance. The London Riots could be one such example of this’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 3(d) Explain why effective socialisation can reduce crime. 8 Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why effective socialisation can reduce crime. Answers are likely to focus on the family but other factors can also be used. Possible answers: • the media can inform people that deviant behaviour will be punished and encourage shared feelings about what is right and wrong through its representations and content; • religion helps to shape morality and, through rules about behaviour and conduct, encourages us to act in a non-criminal way; • peer group – positive peer pressure can help to reduce crime as we want to ‘fit in’; • the family teaches and reinforces norms and values in the primary stage and is thought by many to be the bedrock of determining whether an individual commits crime; • education encourages individuals to work hard and to expect to work hard in a job in the future, criminality is highly disapproved of as an ‘easy option’; • the workplace can be a big deterrent to committing crime as people do not want to lose their job and the status and/or financial rewards and security it brings; • informal social control uses both negative and positive sanctions to encourage individuals to internalise society’s norms and values and to conform to these – this can reduce crime; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped e.g. ‘someone might be afraid of what their family would say’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why effective socialisation can reduce levels of offending. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range e.g. ‘religion teaches that crime is wrong, is not moral and that it will be punished. This encourages people not to commit crime’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 3(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why effective socialisation can reduce levels of offending and will be well developed and explained e.g. ‘all of the agencies of socialisation work together to teach and reinforce right and wrong behaviour in society. Crime is seen to be wrong and is therefore discouraged through a series of positive and negative sanctions’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is ethnicity the most important factor in determining 15 whether an individual commits crime? Candidates should show awareness of the ways that ethnicity is an important factor in determining whether a person commits crime. In evaluation they may consider other social factors such as class, age and gender that may also affect whether an individual commits crime. Ethnicity may be considered as a generic social group or more specific examples of ethnic minorities may be discussed by the candidate e.g. Afro- Caribbean, Pakistani etc. NB: Remember that points can be used for or against the question, depending on the candidate’s explanation. For example, institutional racism could be used to say that ethnicity is an important factor as ethnic minorities perceive it to be unjust and unfair, or it could be used to argue that it’s not ethnicity but police behaviour and perceptions that causes an individual to commit crime. Possible answers: For: • ethnic minorities are also often located within the lower classes/have higher unemployment rates and so may suffer from material deprivation that can lead to crime; • most crime is committed by young people and ethnic minorities have a higher proportion of young people than the majority group hence higher crime rates; • marginalisation may cause ethnic minorities to commit crime as they do not have the same legitimate opportunities for success as the ethnic majority and feel socially excluded; • racism may lead to crime through disillusionment at the unfairness and therefore the rejection of society’s norms and values e.g. law abiding behaviour; • resistance to racism/status frustration may lead to crime as ethnic minorities become angry and frustrated at the way they are treated and so turn to rioting, protesting in response; • ethnic minorities maybe more likely to be involved in gang/street behaviour and so see criminality as a ‘normal’ part of life – street culture; • differential socialisation in terms of ethnicity may determine whether a person commits crime; • ethnicity may lead to crime due to labelling from the police/media which can then lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy and a master status being formed (e.g. Stuart Hall study ‘mugging’); • other reasonable response. 3(e) Against: • ethnic minorities may be subject to institutional racism by the police and the courts and so may just be more likely to be searched, arrested and convicted than the ethnic majority; • victims of crime may be biased and so may be more likely to report crimes committed by ethnic minorities; • police resources typically focus on street crime/urban areas which ethnic minorities are more likely to be involved in rather than hidden corporate or white-collar crime; • gender may be more important than ethnicity in terms of crime e.g. the culture of masculinity, social control of females etc.; • age maybe more important than ethnicity in determining crime rates e.g. low offending rates of the older generation; • social class maybe more important than ethnicity in determining crime rates due to relative deprivation, lack of educational success and unemployment in the lower classes; • most ethnic minority members do not commit crime; • high hidden/dark figure of ethnic majority crime may mean that the OCS’s are misleading; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band will be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent of the debate in the question. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided e.g. ‘the OCS show that ethnic minorities commit the most crime’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms e.g. ‘ethnicity is a person’s race’. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent of the debate in the question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list- like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘ethnic minorities are often poor and so they may commit crime for money’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 3(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent of the debate in the question. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, for example, ‘the OCS does not give the full picture when it comes to ethnic minority crime and it may be that this only appears high because of police targeting areas where ethnic minorities live. They are then more likely to be stopped and searched and arrested resulting in a hidden figure of ethnic majority crime’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent of the debate in the question. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the debate in the question, citing some of the examples given.

Question 7

Education takes many forms and can be formal or informal. It also differs depending on the type of school a student attends. Some sociologi…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘cultural capital’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. a way of life that values education Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the knowledge, language and values that give some students an advantage in education 2 2(b) Describe two ways education is a meritocratic system. Possible answers: • education allows for social mobility as being successful in qualifications is available to all; • comprehensive and non-selective schooling are based on principles of equality where educational success is equally available to all students; • in education if you work and try hard you will be rewarded (functionalism); • functionalist view that education is based upon equal opportunities for all (no sexism, racism, etc.); • a shared value system is taught in schools therefore everyone tends to perceive the education system as a fair and just one; • disadvantaged groups in society can all be successful in education, i.e. ethnic minorities and those from the lower classes; • national curriculum – the introduction of a national curriculum to education has ensured that students all study the same content and material = fair and meritocratic; • legislation has ensured that discriminatory practices and procedures, along with stereotyping have been removed from the education system so making it meritocratic; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4 Question Answer Marks 2(c) Explain how the peer group a student belongs to may affect educational achievement. Candidates may discuss specific examples of peer groups to substantiate their points, e.g. gangs, subcultures, ‘nerds’ and link these to educational achievement. Factors discussed may be positive or negative or a combination of both. Possible answers: • pro-school peer groups will typically be very conformist and will complete work regularly in order to achieve well; • anti-school peer groups value features such as truancy, being cheeky to the teacher and not completing work which may negatively affect educational achievement; • peer groups tend to find themselves in similar sets and streams which defines norms and expectations – the lower a set a student is in, the lower their educational achievement tends to be; • peer groups spend a lot of time together and thus develop their own norms regarding ambition and education which can affect educational achievement; • the gender of the peer group may affect educational achievement, e.g. many sociologists believe the relatively poor performance of boys is down to the culture of masculinity propagated in many peer groups; • girls’ peer groups may encourage working together on homework and school projects in order to be successful – this would be positively sanctioned and positively affect educational achievement; • peer groups may be formed along class lines which may influence educational achievement, e.g. a fatalistic attitude in working class peer groups may lead to low educational achievement; • peer groups may be formed along ethnic lines which may influence educational achievement, e.g. high achieving Chinese students (Archer); • how a peer group is labelled by their teachers or their fellow peers may influence their attitudes to their studies and thus their educational achievement; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. 6 Question Answer Marks 2(c) Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question and may talk about ‘friends influencing how much effort and time you put in at school’. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the question. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘pro-school subcultures value education and encourage their members to strive for educational success. They complete work on time and engage in lessons and thus are often found in top sets with high teacher expectations’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. Question Answer Marks 2(d) Explain why cultural factors are important in determining educational achievement. Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why cultural factors (associated with a person’s way of life) may influence educational achievement. Possible answers: • norms and values taught in the home will influence how a child responds to education at school, e.g. the value parents place on completing homework; • cultural deprivation – the lack of certain pro-school values and attitudes at home that prevent some children from achieving in education; • immediate gratification – being unable to see the advantages of staying in education when you could work for a wage instead; • fatalism – some sociologists believe that there is a culture of fatalism amongst the working class meaning that they don’t try hard in education as there is seen to be no point – resigned to their fate; • in some cultures it may be seen as wrong to want to move away from your origins by moving up the class/status ladder, e.g. working class culture; • the absence of successful role models in the family or the community may contribute to individuals seeing education as unimportant or irrelevant; • working class parents may lack cultural capital – tastes, values and behaviour that advantage a person in education – and this affects educational achievement; • ethnicity and culture affect your values, e.g. Archer – Chinese student’s success in education – working hard was found to be a central part of Chinese culture and was seen to contribute hugely to educational success; • examinations and education typically use an elaborated code whereas some cultures may speak predominantly in a different language or use a restricted code – this may affect educational achievement; • ‘lad culture’ may discourage educational success through the focus placed on being masculine and rejecting the authority of the school; • Sub-cultures – the norms and values of a student’s subculture may influence their attitudes to education, e.g. the Skins and Punks were notoriously anti-education, middle class hippies were much more ‘pro’ education; • other reasonable response. 8 Question Answer Marks 2(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘how you’re brought up will affect how you think about education’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why cultural factors are a major factor in determining educational achievement. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘in working class culture education may not be as valued as in the higher classes and so parents may not insist on homework completion or attend parents evenings etc. This can negatively affect educational achievement’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why cultural factors are a major factor in determining educational achievement and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘the language of education is notoriously middle class and it is this elaborated code that is used in assessments. Those from higher social classes are more likely to be familiar with this alongside other aspects of cultural capital and so are more likely to achieve highly in education’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks 2(e) To what extent does selective education prevent social mobility? Selective education – pupils are chosen (and so others are excluded) usually on the basis of their academic ability. Candidates may also consider selective education in the context of religion (faith schools), setting and/or gender (single sex schools). Selective education may also be linked with fee paying schools. Candidates should show awareness of the ways that selective education can be seen to be unequal and so prevent social mobility but should also consider arguments that this is not the case. Functionalist and/or Marxist theories may be referred to in the debate. Possible answers: For: • selective education segregates students into achievers and failures and therefore creates stereotypes and perceptions about capabilities which may prevent social mobility; • those educated in a selective school typically dominate the high status and high paid jobs in society, demonstrating that social mobility is not equally available to all; • the tripartite system once used in the UK and still seen in other countries demonstrates how selective education is divisive, e.g. those in the grammar schools typically moved onto university and high status jobs whereas those in secondary modern schools held routine jobs; • higher class parents can afford to buy private tutors and study resources in order to better their children’s chances of being selected, children from the lower classes cannot compete and so have lower chances of future social mobility; • traditional working class families may reject the ethos of deferred gratification that selective education promotes and discourage anyone from leaving their roots thus preventing social mobility; • single sex schools – some schools only admit students of one sex, thus limiting educational achievements of the excluded sex and so limiting future social mobility; • streaming/setting within schools – this effectively selects students based on their educational ability/intelligence and can determine what examinations they are entered for, what tiers of examination, specialist teaching, access to accelerated learning, etc. and can thus prevent social mobility for those students who don’t benefit from it, e.g. those in lower sets; • other reasonable response. 15 Question Answer Marks 2(e) Against: • functionalists believe that education is meritocratic therefore social mobility can be achieved through hard work and effort; • it is not selective education that prevents social mobility but other social factors such as class, gender and ethnicity, patriarchy, ruling class ideology, etc.; • feminists believe that it is patriarchy that prevents social mobility for women, not selective education; • Marxists believe that it is the dominant system of capitalism and the associated capitalist ideologies that prevents social mobility rather than selective schools per se; • selective education is based on intelligence therefore it is a fair system that allows the brightest members of society to progress and flourish; • bright working class/ethnic minority children benefit from selective education scholarships and go on to experience high levels of social mobility; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band will be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent of the debate in the question. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘not everyone gets the same chances in education’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘selective education means you are a bright student’. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent of the debate in the question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘those with the best education, usually gained from being in selective education, typically have the best jobs in society’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. Question Answer Marks 2(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent of the debate in the question. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, for example, ‘whilst it can’t be denied that selective education seems to benefit those who have had it in terms of their educational achievements and ability to be successful in life, this is not the only relevant factor. It may well be that ascribed social characteristics such as ethnicity, gender and social class are far more influential than selective education’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent of the debate in the question. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the debate in the question, citing some of the examples given.

Question 8

Sociologists view education in different ways. Some sociologists believe that education is important for society to function well. Others c…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘culture of masculinity’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. learning to be masculine Two marks for clear definition, e.g. norms and values that involve masculine characteristics such as sporting prowess at football rather than reading. 2(b) Describe the two types of gratification experienced by students. 4 Possible answers: • immediate gratification – having short-term aims and wanting rewards straight away, often associated with the working class; • deferred gratification – having long-term aims and being willing to postpone rewards, often associated with the middle class; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how education helps society to function well. 6 Possible answers: • functionalists believe education performs several vital functions which lead to society functioning well; • education acts as an agency of socialisation, teaching core norms and values; • education acts as an agency of social control, imposing sanctions on children in order to create social order; • from a feminist point of view, education maintains patriarchy and thus, for men, society functions well; • from a Marxist point of view, education helps society to function well through the promotion of ruling class ideologies in the hidden curriculum; • education ensures that people with the skills and abilities needed to fuel the economy and be prepared for the workplace are created; • education teaches individuals to get on with people from a diverse range of backgrounds, promoting tolerance and acceptance in society; • allocation of future roles (sifting and sorting) – assessing student’s performance by how well they do in tests allows them to follow different career paths in society; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. 2(c) Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question and may talk about ‘education teaching knowledge and skills’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the question. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘functionalists believe education has several functions that all serve to ensure the smooth running of society. An example of this is the socialisation function – education teaches and transmits acceptance of core norms and values thus promoting social order’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 2(d) Explain why vocationalism is a feature of the education system today. 8 Possible answers: • for functionalists education needs to be selective and to prepare individuals for particular roles and jobs – vocationalism helps with this; • some jobs are better prepared for through vocational rather than academic education, e.g. manual labour, a trade; • Marxists believe vocational education is seen as having less status and worth and is a way of channelling working class students into typical working class jobs; • employers have complained about students not being adequately prepared for the workplace through a traditional academic education – vocationalism has therefore been introduced in order to fill this gap; • for feminists vocational education allows for the continuation of a patriarchal system that sees males and females working in very different roles, e.g. brick laying for boys and childcare for girls; • not everyone can be successful through a solely academic educational route therefore vocational education provides a different pathway for students to learn new skills and knowledge; • vocational education provides students with valuable work experience, helping to prepare them for the world of work; • vocational education is more flexible than traditional education allowing part academic and part work based timetables to be followed, e.g. apprenticeships; • vocational education can provide cheap labour for employers with low pay for the young person and no guarantee of a job at the end; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response 2(d) Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘not everyone can be good at academic subjects’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2– 3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why vocationalism is a feature of the education system today. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘work based education allows students to be better prepared for the demands of the workplace, so giving employers more of what they need’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of ‘why’ vocationalism is a feature of the education system today and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘Marxists believe that vocational education keeps the lower classes in their place and ensures a continuation of the capitalist system and ideology’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent does the education system help males to maintain their 15 powerful position in society? Possible answers: For: • the hidden curriculum reinforces traditional gender roles and stereotypes that may translate to society; • the hierarchy of schools is typically male dominated with males occupying the highest status positions and females dominating the more caring and low status jobs – role modelling/vertical segregation; • subject choice – significantly more males than females take maths, technology, engineering and physics qualifications (STEM subjects) – often a route into the best paid jobs in society; • representations in textbooks may still be quite stereotypical and subconsciously influence girls into lowering their aspirations and expectations for life; • on a global scale, there are far more girls that do not attend schools than boys, particularly in developing countries, – this is likely to negatively impact upon life chances; • teacher expectations/labelling of girls and boys can be very different, e.g. with girls being seen as future housewives and males as the breadwinner, for example; • feminists believe the education system mirrors the patriarchal structures and norms of wider society, therefore helping males to maintain their powerful positions; • male pupils are thought to dominate classroom space and teacher attention in schools, this helps them to learn their higher status and importance than females which can then also translate to wider society; • other reasonable response. 2(e) Against: • girls often achieve higher than boys in education today meaning they are now challenging for the most powerful positions in society; • equal opportunities in education means that social mobility is a possibility for many young women who do well in education; • positive discrimination has been used in some schools to encourage girls to aim higher, through STEM (science, technology and engineering) initiatives for example; • positive female role models are now available for girls, both in education and in society; • the UN has made the education of girls a worldwide priority and a basic human right, so encouraging possibilities for female success; • careers advisors and teachers now encourage girls to be ambitious and to push themselves for the top jobs in society; • girls are more likely than boys to be placed in the higher sets and streams and so to have the best chances of success in society; • it is not the education system but other agents of social control or socialisation that cause gender inequalities in society; • many sociologists would now question whether males do have such powerful positions in society, e.g. female representation and successes in politics, business, the entertainment industry, etc.; • functionalism – education is meritocratic therefore both genders can be successful and powerful; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band will be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent of the question. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘males choose different subjects to females’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent of the question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘males choose different subjects to females in school and university and this leads them into different occupations in the future. The male ones are often high status and well paid’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. 2(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent of the question. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, e.g. ‘education today is based on equal opportunities for males and females and encourages girls to be successful and to aspire to careers and professions. They typically do better in exams than boys and so this helps them to be successful and achieve social mobility’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which the education system helps males to maintain their powerful position in society. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of education helping males to maintain their powerful position in society, citing some of the examples given.

Question 9

Social groups vary in their use of media. The extent to which media affects individuals is a matter of debate for sociologists. There are d…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘hypodermic-syringe model’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. the audience copy what they see in the media Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the media have direct and immediate effects on audiences 4(b) Describe two examples of audience selection in the media. 4 Possible answers: • audiences actively (not passively) read the media, not everyone will understand it in the same way – may depend on age, gender, etc.; • the audience have much power in the media as they are able to choose and select what they consume and, with new media, when and how they consume; • producers of media texts encode a meaning but audiences may decode the text differently, they are not affected/not passive; • audience members do not always give the media their full attention • selective attention – they pick and choose what they consume; • the audience remember some things that they have heard or read better than others, so some media messages have a stronger impact than others – selective retention; • Hall/Morley’s different ways of reading the media: dominant reading – agree with and accept the media’s preferred message; • Hall/Morley’s different ways of reading the media: negotiated reading – share some of the meanings in the media text but modify it in a way to reflect their own interests and position; • Hall/Morley’s different ways of reading the media: oppositional reading – do not share the media text’s meaning, they interpret the text in a different way; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how men and women use media differently. 6 Possible answers: • males use computers and video games more than females and play different games (often more active/violent); • on TV men tend to prefer factual shows such as documentaries whereas women prefer soap operas and costume drama; • men typically have control of the remote control in the family so have more choice over what to consume – male dominance; • men prefer to consume media uninterrupted in silence whereas women see TV viewing as a social activity, discussion points; • men carefully plan their TV viewing, women tend not to; • most women leave the recording of programmes or the personal planner to men – they have the control; • men consume more violent and adult content than women; • women use social media more often than men; • men read more news and politics than women (information – uses and gratifications model); • men consume more sports in the media than women; • uses and gratifications theory – men use media more for information, women for entertainment; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question and may talk about examples of the types of programmes on TV men and women prefer. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2– 3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the question. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘according to research by Morley, men are far more passive in their TV viewing, whereas women see it as a form of social activity whereby they can define and discuss personal relationships and issues of identity. Males often use the media for entertainment, whereas women often use it for connections and communication hence their increased use of social networks’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 4(d) Explain why new media gives the audience more control over media 8 content. Possible answers: • new media allows for the audience to alter and influence media content through its interactive features, e.g. comments, forums; • new media is available on multiple platforms and on-demand meaning that the audience can control how they consume the content, when, how and where; • new media encourages greater diversification in the media content available to the audience, meaning that more products for a niche or specialist audience are available; • new media allows the audience to challenge and change stereotypical representations and content, e.g. through hashtag campaigns such as #metoo; • new media allows the audience to create the media, e.g. through citizen journalism in the news, vlogs, YouTube channels; • new media is global and so allows the audience to access media content from across the world, increasing their control; • new media comprises of user generated content whereby the audience are directly making media content themselves – prosumers; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘new media can be made by the audience’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why new media gives the audience greater control over media content. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘the audience gets new media from the internet so it can be from all over the world giving them lots of choice’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 4(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why new media gives the audience greater control over media content and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘new media is ‘on-demand’ and so the audience can decide when, what and how they watch thus giving them far greater control over content’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent is violence in society caused by violence in the media? 15 Possible answers: For: • hypodermic-syringe model – the media has a direct effect upon the audience, e.g. it makes the audience more violent; • imitation – children learn from copying others which means they may copy the violence they see in the media; • desensitisation – the audience become so used to images of violence that people are no longer shocked by it; • media violence is often glamorised meaning that the harsh realities for the victims are not portrayed; • even ‘good’ characters in the media use violence and so this shows it to be normal and acceptable; • computer games and films are often cited as examples of media forms that cause violence in society, e.g. Grand Theft Auto; • new media means that violence is prolific on a global scale and easily accessible to all, potentially making it even more influential than before; • the ‘drip-drip effect’– constant repetition of images and scenes of violence in the media normalise it thus increasing levels of violence in society; • moral panics, folk devils and deviancy amplification – representations of violence through these processes have been shown by sociologists such as Cohen and Young to increase levels of violence in society; • children may be particularly susceptible to being affected by violence in the media and may then commit violent acts themselves in society, e.g. Jamie Bulger case in the UK, school shootings in USA; • other reasonable response. 4(e) Against: • some media effects theories, e.g. the uses and gratifications model/audience selection models, suggest that the media has very little influence over the active audience; • fictitious violence is recognised as such by the audience – they are not stupid and realise that this is not real; • most people who watch violence in the media do not commit it themselves; • catharsis – the release of strong emotions through safe channelling such as playing video games reduces the need for real life violence; • sensitisation – the shock effect of seeing violence in the media causes people to be even more shocked by real life violence and so not partake in it; • access to violent material is regulated and restricted, protecting those vulnerable to its effects from it, e.g. film certification; • how can the effects of violent media be separated from all other possible influences such as the family and peer group?; • violence in society may be caused by factors other than the media, e.g. peer pressure and proving your masculinity; • violence in society may have nothing to do with violence in the media and instead be about structural factors in society such as deprivation and/or social exclusion; • other reasonable response Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band will be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent of the question. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘children copy what they see in the media’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent of the question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘violence in the media is often glamorised so it’s not clear what the negative effects of it really are on the victims meaning people are more likely to do it in society’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 4(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent of the question. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that ‘different sociological theories believe the media influences the audience differently. For example, the uses and gratifications theory does not believe that violence on TV will affect the audience at all in society’. There will be a two- sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which violence in society is caused by violence in the media. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether violence in society is caused by violence in the media, citing some of the examples given.

Question 10

Education takes many forms and can be formal or informal. It also differs depending on the type of school a student attends. Some sociologi…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘cultural capital’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. a way of life that values education Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the knowledge, language and values that give some students an advantage in education 2 2(b) Describe two ways education is a meritocratic system. Possible answers: • education allows for social mobility as being successful in qualifications is available to all; • comprehensive and non-selective schooling are based on principles of equality where educational success is equally available to all students; • in education if you work and try hard you will be rewarded (functionalism); • functionalist view that education is based upon equal opportunities for all (no sexism, racism, etc.); • a shared value system is taught in schools therefore everyone tends to perceive the education system as a fair and just one; • disadvantaged groups in society can all be successful in education, i.e. ethnic minorities and those from the lower classes; • national curriculum – the introduction of a national curriculum to education has ensured that students all study the same content and material = fair and meritocratic; • legislation has ensured that discriminatory practices and procedures, along with stereotyping have been removed from the education system so making it meritocratic; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4 Question Answer Marks 2(c) Explain how the peer group a student belongs to may affect educational achievement. Candidates may discuss specific examples of peer groups to substantiate their points, e.g. gangs, subcultures, ‘nerds’ and link these to educational achievement. Factors discussed may be positive or negative or a combination of both. Possible answers: • pro-school peer groups will typically be very conformist and will complete work regularly in order to achieve well; • anti-school peer groups value features such as truancy, being cheeky to the teacher and not completing work which may negatively affect educational achievement; • peer groups tend to find themselves in similar sets and streams which defines norms and expectations – the lower a set a student is in, the lower their educational achievement tends to be; • peer groups spend a lot of time together and thus develop their own norms regarding ambition and education which can affect educational achievement; • the gender of the peer group may affect educational achievement, e.g. many sociologists believe the relatively poor performance of boys is down to the culture of masculinity propagated in many peer groups; • girls’ peer groups may encourage working together on homework and school projects in order to be successful – this would be positively sanctioned and positively affect educational achievement; • peer groups may be formed along class lines which may influence educational achievement, e.g. a fatalistic attitude in working class peer groups may lead to low educational achievement; • peer groups may be formed along ethnic lines which may influence educational achievement, e.g. high achieving Chinese students (Archer); • how a peer group is labelled by their teachers or their fellow peers may influence their attitudes to their studies and thus their educational achievement; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. 6 Question Answer Marks 2(c) Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question and may talk about ‘friends influencing how much effort and time you put in at school’. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the question. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘pro-school subcultures value education and encourage their members to strive for educational success. They complete work on time and engage in lessons and thus are often found in top sets with high teacher expectations’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. Question Answer Marks 2(d) Explain why cultural factors are important in determining educational achievement. Candidates should show awareness of the various reasons why cultural factors (associated with a person’s way of life) may influence educational achievement. Possible answers: • norms and values taught in the home will influence how a child responds to education at school, e.g. the value parents place on completing homework; • cultural deprivation – the lack of certain pro-school values and attitudes at home that prevent some children from achieving in education; • immediate gratification – being unable to see the advantages of staying in education when you could work for a wage instead; • fatalism – some sociologists believe that there is a culture of fatalism amongst the working class meaning that they don’t try hard in education as there is seen to be no point – resigned to their fate; • in some cultures it may be seen as wrong to want to move away from your origins by moving up the class/status ladder, e.g. working class culture; • the absence of successful role models in the family or the community may contribute to individuals seeing education as unimportant or irrelevant; • working class parents may lack cultural capital – tastes, values and behaviour that advantage a person in education – and this affects educational achievement; • ethnicity and culture affect your values, e.g. Archer – Chinese student’s success in education – working hard was found to be a central part of Chinese culture and was seen to contribute hugely to educational success; • examinations and education typically use an elaborated code whereas some cultures may speak predominantly in a different language or use a restricted code – this may affect educational achievement; • ‘lad culture’ may discourage educational success through the focus placed on being masculine and rejecting the authority of the school; • Sub-cultures – the norms and values of a student’s subculture may influence their attitudes to education, e.g. the Skins and Punks were notoriously anti-education, middle class hippies were much more ‘pro’ education; • other reasonable response. 8 Question Answer Marks 2(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘how you’re brought up will affect how you think about education’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why cultural factors are a major factor in determining educational achievement. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘in working class culture education may not be as valued as in the higher classes and so parents may not insist on homework completion or attend parents evenings etc. This can negatively affect educational achievement’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why cultural factors are a major factor in determining educational achievement and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘the language of education is notoriously middle class and it is this elaborated code that is used in assessments. Those from higher social classes are more likely to be familiar with this alongside other aspects of cultural capital and so are more likely to achieve highly in education’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks 2(e) To what extent does selective education prevent social mobility? Selective education – pupils are chosen (and so others are excluded) usually on the basis of their academic ability. Candidates may also consider selective education in the context of religion (faith schools), setting and/or gender (single sex schools). Selective education may also be linked with fee paying schools. Candidates should show awareness of the ways that selective education can be seen to be unequal and so prevent social mobility but should also consider arguments that this is not the case. Functionalist and/or Marxist theories may be referred to in the debate. Possible answers: For: • selective education segregates students into achievers and failures and therefore creates stereotypes and perceptions about capabilities which may prevent social mobility; • those educated in a selective school typically dominate the high status and high paid jobs in society, demonstrating that social mobility is not equally available to all; • the tripartite system once used in the UK and still seen in other countries demonstrates how selective education is divisive, e.g. those in the grammar schools typically moved onto university and high status jobs whereas those in secondary modern schools held routine jobs; • higher class parents can afford to buy private tutors and study resources in order to better their children’s chances of being selected, children from the lower classes cannot compete and so have lower chances of future social mobility; • traditional working class families may reject the ethos of deferred gratification that selective education promotes and discourage anyone from leaving their roots thus preventing social mobility; • single sex schools – some schools only admit students of one sex, thus limiting educational achievements of the excluded sex and so limiting future social mobility; • streaming/setting within schools – this effectively selects students based on their educational ability/intelligence and can determine what examinations they are entered for, what tiers of examination, specialist teaching, access to accelerated learning, etc. and can thus prevent social mobility for those students who don’t benefit from it, e.g. those in lower sets; • other reasonable response. 15 Question Answer Marks 2(e) Against: • functionalists believe that education is meritocratic therefore social mobility can be achieved through hard work and effort; • it is not selective education that prevents social mobility but other social factors such as class, gender and ethnicity, patriarchy, ruling class ideology, etc.; • feminists believe that it is patriarchy that prevents social mobility for women, not selective education; • Marxists believe that it is the dominant system of capitalism and the associated capitalist ideologies that prevents social mobility rather than selective schools per se; • selective education is based on intelligence therefore it is a fair system that allows the brightest members of society to progress and flourish; • bright working class/ethnic minority children benefit from selective education scholarships and go on to experience high levels of social mobility; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band will be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent of the debate in the question. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘not everyone gets the same chances in education’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘selective education means you are a bright student’. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent of the debate in the question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘those with the best education, usually gained from being in selective education, typically have the best jobs in society’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. Question Answer Marks 2(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent of the debate in the question. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that, for example, ‘whilst it can’t be denied that selective education seems to benefit those who have had it in terms of their educational achievements and ability to be successful in life, this is not the only relevant factor. It may well be that ascribed social characteristics such as ethnicity, gender and social class are far more influential than selective education’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent of the debate in the question. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the debate in the question, citing some of the examples given.

Question 11

Whether gender equality in the family exists is a matter of debate. Many factors affect this, for example social characteristics such as et…

Accepted Answer

Question Answer Marks 1(a) What is meant by the term ‘gender equality’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. women’s rights. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when men and women have equal roles, status and rights. 1(b) Describe two trends in divorce in modern industrial societies. 4 Candidates will describe two trends in divorce in MISs. A trend is any pattern that can be seen when it comes to divorce. Statistics may be used but are not essential. Possible answers: • age – those who marry young are more likely to divorce; • class – middle class people are less likely to divorce than working class people; • society – the divorce rate is high in MIS’s as compared to other types of society; • patterns – currently the divorce rate has flattened off suggesting it is no longer rising; • gender – women are more likely to file for divorce than men; • religion – those with strong religious beliefs are less likely to divorce than those who are non-religious; • era -in the UK the divorce rate is three times higher today than in 1969; • country – the UK has the highest divorce rate in Europe – in 2010 120 000 divorces took place; • gender – women in the UK are two and a half times more likely to be granted a divorce compared to men; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 1(c) Explain how ethnicity can affect family life. 6 Candidates can use ethnicity in many different ways – as long as this is linked to family life it is fine to credit. They may well draw on local, cultural examples. Typical areas of discussion may be family roles, family types, family size etc. Possible answers: • ethnic minority families typically adapt to the country they are living in whilst still holding onto cultural practices from their country of origin (dual identity); • Afro-Caribbean families may have high rates of single parents and are typically matrifocal; • South Asian families are often extended in form, have low divorce rates and few instances of single parenthood; • arranged marriages are practised by some ethnic groups as the norm e.g. some South Asian families; • for some ethnic groups the law determines aspects of family life e.g. Chinese families may be influenced by China’s ‘one child’ policy; • South Asian families are often patriarchal in nature with the males (father and brothers) often having more power and influence than the females; • South Asian families often abide by traditional segregated conjugal roles – male breadwinner and female housewife/mother; • cultural defence – some families may socialise children into their cultural norms and values rather than the host nations; • dual heritage/mixed race families – hybridity may be seen here when it comes to roles and experiences in the family; • for some ethnic groups marital practices such as polygamy are normal; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how ethnicity can affect family life and may talk about e.g. ‘different ethnic groups having different sized families’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 1(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how ethnicity can affect family life. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘Primary socialisation often means that ethnic groups follow the traditions of the previous generations. In some South Asian families, for example, the extended family form is still typical and this is usually patriarchal in structure, with the male as breadwinner’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 1(d) Explain why the average family size has decreased in modern 8 industrial societies. Candidates should show an understanding of the various reasons to explain why average family size has decreased in MIS’s. Possible answers: • secularisation has meant that there has been a growth in divorce and single parenthood –this makes family size smaller; • singlehood is now socially acceptable and increasingly popular, this decreases family size; • women are typically today having less children due to factors such as contraception and their focus on careers – this leads to smaller families; • advancements in medicine and health-care means that children rarely die in infancy today in MIS’s therefore families have less need to have lots of children; • the family is less likely to look after elderly relatives, relying on other institutions to do so instead, meaning larger families are no longer so functionally necessary; • there has been a big decline in the extended family, it often being replaced by nuclear families – these are much smaller; • geographical and social mobility has meant that the family has become dispersed – it is easier to function effectively like this as a smaller unit; • feminism has encouraged women to take control of their own lives and this has affected family size as more women work, choose to remain childless or to remain single; • dual-worker families are increasingly the norm in MIS’s and these do not fit with the notion of large families – resulting in typically smaller family sizes; • child-centredness has led to expensive child-rearing where children are consumers, no longer bringing money into the family, so parents choose to have less children; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why average family size has decreased in MIS’s. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘women go out to work rather than have babies’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 1(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why average family size has decreased in MIS’s. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘Families are increasingly smaller in MIS’s because extended families no longer fit the needs of a geographically dispersed society. They have therefore been replaced by nuclear families.’ etc . At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why average family size has decreased in MIS’s and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘Families today are typically smaller because of the expectation by women for equality in all areas of social life. Feminists have promoted careers, singlehood, little reliance on men and lesbianism and all of these factors have resulted in smaller average family sizes. With families now typically being dual-career there is less time available for childcare, large families do not fit this type of family.’ They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 1(e) To what extent are family roles changing in modern industrial 15 societies? Candidates should show an awareness of the various ways that family roles are changing in MIS’s. They are likely to look at husbands’ and wives’ roles in their response but the role of children may also be considered. It is likely that candidates will engage with the feminist debate here. Possible answers: FOR • loss of family functions means that roles once taken by the family e.g. taking care of the children, are now performed by the state; • sandwich/pivot generation – roles of parents now often involve supporting children into adulthood – the boomerang family; • changing legislation affects family roles e.g. equality acts, children’s acts, maternity/paternity leave etc; • increased levels of divorce in society means that both men and women are having to change their roles to fit the new family structure they find themselves in – single parent, singlehood, blended families etc; • secularisation has meant there is less pressure for people to get married and to have children in wedlock – this leads to greater family diversity and therefore different family roles; • in child-centred MIS’s, the role of the child has changed to be the focus of many families, highly protected and with a lot of power over decisions and day-to-day family life; • traditional conjugal roles are typically being replaced by joint conjugal roles, largely due to feminism and the greater power and status women have in both society and the family; • the maternal role has changed to the rise in working women and childless women; • the paternal role has changed to reflect the decline in the hegemonic male and the rise in new men and househusbands; • grand-parents may be playing an increasingly important role in organising family life – through childcare, financial and emotional support; • other reasonable response. 1(e) AGAINST • grand-parents always played a large role in family life, through extended family structures so this hasn’t changed; • children are still lower in status and power than adult family members and subject to adult authority, this hasn’t changed; • whilst there is a lot of evidence to show that families today are more symmetrical it is still typically the woman who performs the majority of the household tasks; • the maternal role has changed but stereotypes have not and for most women, having children often leads to a career break or to part-time work meaning that they become the primary care giver in the family; • the paternal role may not have changed much at all in the family – it is still typically the father who is in charge of household finances and important decisions (Edgell, Pahl) as well as being the breadwinner; • with an increase in boomerang families there has been a continuation in MIS’s of the traditional parent-child relationship; • there is often a dual or triple burden placed upon women in family life, meaning she is responsible for both paid work, domestic work and emotional work; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which family roles are changing. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘women and men both go out to work now so they both have to do the housework’. Lower in the band (1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. family roles means the parts played by different members of the family e.g. the housewife role. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which family roles are changing. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘Women are sometimes the ones who are the breadwinners in the family today whilst the men stay at home as househusbands’ etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 1(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which family roles are changing. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘Despite more equality in society leading to changing roles within the family, women still do most of the housework, emotional work and childcare whilst men are still seen to be the ones who make the important financial decisions in the home. This hasn’t changed’. Or ‘Men and women are equal now in society thanks to the feminist movement and so this has also been transferred to the family where conjugal roles are now shared. This has reduced status and power divisions in the family and has resulted in developments such as the househusband and the new man becoming more normal male family roles’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which family roles are changing. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of family roles changing, citing some of the examples given.

Question 12

Sociologists debate whether cultural deprivation, labelling and material factors limit educational success. Education is not just about gai…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘labelling’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. a stereotype. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. defining a person or group in a particular way so that certain behaviour is expected of them. 2(b) Describe two ways social expectations are reinforced in school. 4 Candidates will describe two ways that social expectations are reinforced in school. Candidates are likely to consider the role of education here and so may refer to functionalism and/or Marxism. This is not a necessity however. Possible answers: • education is an agency of secondary socialisation whose ‘role’ is to teach children what society expects of them (the hidden curriculum); • school is an agency of social control so positive sanctions/rewards are used to teach children what the ‘correct’ way to behave and think is; • school as an agency of social control also uses negative sanctions/punishments to ensure that children do not engage in deviant behaviour; • negative sanctions can also act as a deterrent to prevent children straying from the correct path; • Marxists believe that those in power use schools as an agent of the state to control the minds and actions of the future workforce and so make them compliant and obedient; • feminism – gendered subject choice in schools can be seen to reinforce patriarchal expectations in society of the roles of men and women e.g. encouraging females to study ‘communication’ subjects and males technical; • schools can be seen to reinforce a collective culture through shared acts and celebrations e.g. patriotism, learning about the country’s heritage and history etc.; • functionalists believe that education is meritocratic and so at school children learn that through hard work and effort they can achieve their status; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how cultural deprivation may be a barrier to educational 6 success. Candidates should consider how cultural deprivation may be a barrier to educational success. CULTURAL DEPRIVATION – aspects of the values and attitudes from home of some children prevents them from achieving highly in education. Possible answers: • a fatalistic attitude amongst the working class – not believing that you can change your future if you work hard; • a value placed on immediate rather than deferred gratification – working class being unable to see the benefits of putting off rewards and staying in education; • working class boys are said to have a thrill-seeking culture which may get them into trouble and may lead to the formation of anti-school subcultures; • having parents who do not value education – they may have had a negative experience themselves; • Bourdieu’s cultural capital – not having this capital may be a reason as to why students do not do well in education; • working class loyalty – there is often a sense of community and loyalty within this class culture which may make it seem that valuing something middle class like education is wrong; • there may be a lack of successful family role models who benefited from educational success and so the working class see education as unimportant and unnecessary to their lives; • linguistic codes – some students may lack the language needed to be successful in education e.g. elaborated code (Bernstein); • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how cultural deprivation may be a barrier to educational success and may talk about e.g. ‘if a child’s parent doesn’t think education is important then they won’t either’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 2(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how cultural deprivation may be a barrier to educational success. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘sociologists believe that there is a fatalistic attitude in the working class whereby they expect immediate gratification. The advantages of putting off rewards by remaining in education and working hard are not seen meaning working class children typically leave school earlier and have fewer educational qualifications than the higher classes.’ This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 2(d) Explain why IQ tests are criticised as a way of measuring intelligence. 8 Candidates need to explain different reasons why IQ tests are criticised as a way of measuring intelligence. Possible answers: • some people with low scores on IQ tests go on to do well in their education and career whilst those who do well are not always successful in life – is this really an accurate measure of intelligence?; • performance in IQ tests improves with practice – parents often buy in tutors to coach their children. This leads many sociologists to question whether the IQ tests actually do measure intelligence; • how well a person does on an IQ test can be affected by things like illness and anxiety – this therefore can’t be an accurate measure of intelligence; • IQ tests measure ability at just one point in time, intelligence doesn’t work like this. Intelligence develops and changes over time so the IQ tests cannot be accurate; • IQ tests are based on a narrow range of skills – intelligence is far broader than this; • IQ tests are written from a middle class perspective which will inevitably include their cultural biases and assumptions – those not from this culture will therefore always find the test more difficult; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why IQ tests are criticised as a way of measuring intelligence. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘the tests are written by the middle class’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why IQ tests are criticised as a way of measuring intelligence. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘IQ tests only measure how much a person can do at one moment in time. They might be unwell or stressed. This means the test may not be an accurate measure of intelligence.’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 2(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why IQ tests are criticised as an accurate measure of intelligence and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘It has been proven that performance in IQ tests improves with practice as children get used to the styles and demands of the questions. Parents whose children are going to take the test for school selection will want them to practise in order to improve. This is why so many middle class parents buy private tutors to coach their children prior to any selection tests. Marxists believe this is unfair as it advantages middle class children and proves that IQ tests do not measure intelligence if practise can improve scores.’ They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent do peer groups influence educational achievement? 15 Candidates should consider how the peer group are likely to influence educational achievement. In evaluation it is likely that other school, material and cultural factors will also be discussed. Candidates could look at general points or make their ideas specific to such social factors as social class, ethnicity and/or gender. Pupil sub-cultures may also be discussed. Local examples may be used to support points made. Note: please do credit any reference to pupil sub-cultures in candidates answers. Possible answers: FOR • some pupils rebel against the school and develop an alternative set of values, behaviour and attitudes in an anti-school peer group/sub- culture. This will lessen educational achievement; • status frustration – Cohen – some pupils in peer groups who do not have much academic status in school may find their status in other ways e.g. cheeking the teacher, anti-social behaviour etc. This will reduce the chances of educational success; • there may be pressure in schools for boys peer groups to adopt a culture of masculinity which typically does not involve studying and working hard and so may lead to less educational achievement; • Willis ‘the lads’ – this study shows how a peer group of working class boys at school saw no point in working hard and learning at school as they were destined for working class, low paid employment; • middle class peer groups are more likely to be supportive of learning and academic success and so affect pupils educational achievement in a positive way; • some minority ethnic peer groups find school ethnocentric and other pupils may be racist towards them, leading to them being negatively labelled and living up to a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure e.g. Sewell’s study; • Archer – Chinese pupils – this peer group valued education and so worked hard to achieve high levels of educational success; • girls peer groups are more likely to be supportive of education and to value academic success; • Jackson – ‘the ladettes’ – some female peer groups are developing in schools that are based on laddish behaviour as working hard is seen to be ‘uncool’ – this negatively affects educational achievement due to peers; • peer pressure – there is a lot of pressure on pupils to fit in and to conform to the norms of the peer group. This could affect educational achievement either positively or negatively; • other reasonable response. 2(e) AGAINST • the argument that young people are influenced and pressured by their peers is too deterministic – young people make their own choices in education; • material factors such as the ability to buy revision resources, private tutors etc. may influence educational achievement more than the peer group; • the type of school attended may be more influential on educational success than the peer group e.g. the benefits that a private education can bring; • cultural factors may be more important then peer group factors e.g. whether parents value education, having role models in the family who have done well at school etc.; • linguistic factors may be more important than peer group factors e.g. those in the working class and in ethnic minority groups maybe more likely to use the restricted code whereas in education it is the elaborated code (cultivated by the ethnic majority middle classes) that is valued and used; • school factors may be more important than peer group factors e.g. setting and streaming, teacher labelling and expectations; • home factors such as access to the internet, a quiet place to study etc. may influence educational achievement more than the peer group; • the media can be seen to be a reason for lower educational achievement of some pupils e.g. negative role models who do not value education, not the peer group; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which the peer group influence educational achievement. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘Peer groups pressure pupils to fit in with their behaviour’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. the peer group are the people of a similar age to you. 2(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which the peer group influence educational achievement. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘If a pupil comes from an ethnic minority background they may experience racism in school and so rebel against it through their peer group’ etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which the peer group influence educational achievement. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘Despite there being many examples of how peer group factors can affect educational achievement, either negatively through an anti-school sub-culture such as the lads or positively through a pro-school sub-culture, other factors are also influential. It may be, for example, that material factors such as the ability to pay for a private education through economic capital are more important. Marxists would agree with this believing that the education system is not at all meritocratic.’ There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which the peer group influence educational achievement. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of the peer group influencing educational achievement, citing some of the examples given.

Question 13

In recent years the media has changed due to factors such as the growth of the internet, diversification and new types of funding. Not ever…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘diversification’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. Virgin media also runs airlines. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when media companies extend their activities into different areas. 4(b) Describe two ways the media is funded. 4 Possible answers: • advertising – selling advertising space is a major source of revenue for the media; • some state owned companies are funded through a public licence fee e.g. the BBC; • through profits from products/merchandise – the largest media conglomerate in the world in terms of revenue is Disney; • private funding – the costs of the media are funded by private individuals or companies; • public funding – the costs of the media are covered by payments from the government or other public bodies; • subscription fees – funded by the audience through additional costs and payments such as Netflix, Sky etc; • pay per view – e.g. buying the rights to watch a live sporting event, movies; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how the internet has changed media consumption. 6 Candidates need to show an understanding of how the internet has changed media consumption. Examples from an international, national or local context may be included, these should be credited accordingly. Pluralism and postmodernism may be discussed by some candidates. Possible answers: • the arrival of the internet means that media products are now much more interactive resulting in a two-way communication process; • the consumer is now often also a producer – a prosumer – meaning that many media texts the audience consume are not made by large media corporations; • because the internet is a digital technology content is streamed meaning that it can be accessed and consumed ‘on-demand’ rather than being tied to fixed scheduling times; • the internet allows information to be shown to the audience live, as it happens – either through official media agencies or through citizen journalism; • the internet means there may be less mediated and edited content for the audience, perhaps resulting in more ‘real’ products/content being available; • the internet allows for specialised and niche narrowcasting, anything the audience is interested in will be available quickly and easily; • the dark web has now emerged due to the anonymity of the internet and the difficulties the authorities have in controlling its content; • the internet may have made adult content more readily available to vulnerable groups such as children e.g. extreme violence, sexual content etc.; • traditional media consumption has declined due to the rise of online media products; • the younger generation and digital natives frequently watch shorter media products today e.g. youtube clips, memes, vines; • media consumption is now portable through multiple devices so can be consumed anywhere, unlike traditional media; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the internet has changed media consumption and may talk about e.g. ‘the internet means increased choice and media content about anything the audience wants’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 4(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the internet has changed media consumption. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘The internet streams content to the audience digitally meaning that it is on demand so they can consume whatever they want whenever they want. This makes the process much more flexible and increases audience choice according to postmodernists’. The internet also means there can be two-way communication between producer and audience due to increased options for interactivity’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well- developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 4(d) Explain why only some news stories are reported in the media. 8 Candidates should consider why only some news stories are reported in the media. Examples may be used to support any points made. These may be linked with relevant theories and perspectives but this is not a necessity. Possible answers: • Marxism – only the stories that support the dominant hegemony are likely to feature in the news; • Marxism – the news will be dominated by celebrity trivia in order to divert working class attention away from the serious economic inequalities in society; • Marxism – stories that show managers and those in authority in a bad light are less likely to feature in the news according to the Glasgow University Media Group (GUMG); • mass appeal – the news shown has to appeal to the biggest possible audience to get the maximum audience possible; • media gatekeepers will make the choices about what stories do and do not feature in the news; • time and financial constraints will always be taken into account when deciding what news stories to feature; • the more news values a story has, the more likely it is to feature in the news schedule e.g. negativity, unexpectedness, reference to elite nations or individuals; • news stories are likely to neglect the wrongdoings of large and powerful corporations and governments and be censored, particularly if the news is state owned/run; • whether a story makes the news or not may be determined by what other news stories are available for selection that day – on a different, ‘slack news day’, for example they may have made the schedule; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why only some news stories are reported in the media. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘every media product has time and financial constraints so can’t cover everything’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2– 3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 4(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why only some news stories are reported in the media. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘The media will cover those news events that it feels will attract the largest audience. This means that the event needs to be associated with recognisable news values for it to be covered. This could be featuring elite personnel and being extremely shocking’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why only some news stories are reported by the media and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘Marxists believe that the news is an example of agenda setting. It is a tool used by the elite to divert working class attention away from societal problems and the wrongdoings of the higher classes through a diet of trivia and celebrity gossip. Stories that portray capitalism in a good light or alternative ideologies negatively are more likely to feature too as these fit the dominant hegemony created by the upper class owners. Stories that portray management or those in authority in a bad light are therefore far less likely to feature. This was shown by the GUMG’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent have media representations of social groups changed 15 over time? Candidates should consider a range of media representations of social groups and whether these have changed over time. Likely areas of consideration are gender, ethnicity, age, social class, disability and sexuality. Clearly not all of these need be covered. They may adopt a general approach to the question or may focus on specific forms of media. International, national or local examples are likely to be used to support points made. Possible answers: FOR: • campaigns to change representations have been launched by pressure groups and activists using the internet and this has therefore led to changes in media representations e.g. #this girl can (gender) etc.; • social positions have changed so that previously powerless groups now have a voice and have more status in society – this has led to media representations changing e.g. the rise of the career woman, e.g. positive representations of disability through the Paralympics; • as the media industry has grown and diversified so more jobs have become available – this has meant that those groups that were represented in a limited range of roles are now employed in the industry and so can start to alter those representations e.g. more ethnic minorities are now involved in media production; • the purchasing power of some previously negatively represented groups has now been recognised by the media industry e.g. the grey pound, the pink pound, affluent youth etc – representations have therefore had to change in order to better appeal to these groups; • the growth of new media and the internet has provided opportunities for a wider range of more diverse representations and for groups to create their own representations in order to challenge the dominant ideology e.g. through user generated content and social media – youth, females (feminism), ethnic minorities etc; • the new media has also meant that the media today is global -this has meant lots of new cultures have become accessible to people which leads to greater hybridity and blending and so starts to change traditional representations – postmodernism; • negative change – the sexualisation of men through the ‘female gaze’ has become more prevalent in today’s media, the creation of new folk devils in the media e.g. Islamophobia; • other reasonable response. 4(e) AGAINST: • invisibility – some social groups are still absent from areas of the media e.g. ethnic minorities in positions of power; • under-representation – some social groups appear in the media less than you would expect according to their numbers in the population e.g. disabled people are still only infrequently seen in mainstream media products; • stereotypes – these still dominate media representations as they are so simple for the often global audience to understand e.g. youth as trouble, the female carer etc; • Mulvey’s male gaze – the male perspective is still often seen as the norm, particularly in film e.g. Lara Croft and Wonder Woman are in many ways examples of strong female representations yet both are created with a curvy, sexualised figure unachievable to most women; • most mainstream producers and directors are still white so the media has also been accused of representing from a white perspective and thus being ethnocentric; • binary oppositions always have and indeed still do dominate in media representations – the simple use of opposites means that little really changes when it comes to representations e.g. men as the opposite of women – strength versus caring; • new media may actually be regressive when it comes to media representations as there is now so much availability of material linked to pornography, hate crimes, extremism etc; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which media representations of social groups have changed over time. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. ‘Women are not seen as housewives in the media as much anymore’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3– 4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. a representation is a way of showing someone or something. 4(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which media representations of social groups have changed over time. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘Stereotypes are easy for the audience to understand so you still see a lot of them in the media. There are still traditional representations like the male provider and protector but also more modern ones in the media too like the caring father’ etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which media representations of social groups have changed over time. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘Despite the content of the media still often being stereotyped – ethnic minorities are still shown in a very limited range of roles, for example – things are starting to change. Media representations shift as society changes so for example as women gain more power in society so the way the media represents them changes too. The range of roles women are seen in has greatly increased since Meehan’s research in the 1980’s and they are often represented in more masculine ways than ever before. So we see female leads in films, non-sexualised female characters, intelligent career women and more homosexual females. This has been made easier by new media that allows traditionally powerless groups to self-represent and to create their own media content to challenge the once taken for granted media representations’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which media representations of social groups have changed over time. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. 4(e) Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of media representations of social groups changing over time, citing some of the examples given.

Question 14

There are many different types of schools students can attend today, such as private and state schools. Experiences of education and educat…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘state schools’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. a comprehensive school. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. schools that are run directly or indirectly by the government. this question. 2(b) Describe two school factors, apart from the type of school, that may affect a student’s educational achievement. Possible answers: • good schools have better examination results than bad schools (Rutter), e.g. high expectations of pupils, quality teaching, system of rewards, teacher role models; • teacher expectations – teachers may assume that working class students are less intelligent than higher class students and so they are more likely to be placed in the lower sets which may result in a self-fulfilling prophecy; • teacher expectations – higher class students may be seen as more intelligent by teachers thus are more likely to be in the higher sets and experience the halo effect; • the peer group a student mixes with inside school is likely to affect achievement, e.g. whether the student joins a pro or an anti-school subculture; • Marxists believe the hidden curriculum in schools encourages working class underachievement and vocational rather than academic aspirations; • Becker states that teachers label students – they have a picture in their heads of the ‘ideal student’ and those that match this stereotype are more likely to achieve well in school; • Rosenthal and Jacobson – when teachers believe students are bright they challenge and push them more and so the students achieve higher results; 4 Candidates will describe two school factors that may affect a student’s educational achievement – any that describe home, cultural or linguistic factors should not be credited. Type of school attended should also not be credited. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(b) • setting and streaming students is seen to limit what they are able to achieve academically; • there may be gendered expectations in school transmitted through the hidden curriculum that may result in gendered subject choice and achievement; • there may be an ethnocentric curriculum in place that alienates certain students and so negatively affects their educational achievement; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how social control can be experienced in education. Possible answers: • formal social control – if a student breaks a recognised rule then they can expect to be punished through a series of written sanctions by a teacher; • social control may be physical, such as corporal punishment; • social control may be to do with time, e.g. detentions, isolations and exclusions; • social control can be informal – teachers looks, words and instructions will often ensure the student conforms; • social control can also be exercised in schools through the peer group – peer group pressure, for example. This may result in the formation of pro or anti-school subcultures; • bullying from peers may control students through pressure and coercion; • social control may be through negative sanctions – these act to punish students for their actions and deter them from doing them again; 6 Candidates should consider how social control can be experienced in education/schools. Candidates may refer to informal or formal social control or a combination of the two. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(c) • social control may be positive through a system of rewards and praise to encourage conformity; • social control can be experienced in different ways according to the gender/ethnicity/class of the student, e.g. boys are more likely to be excluded from school than girls; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(d) Explain why some boys underachieve in education compared to girls. Possible answers: • most school work is based on reading and writing whereas boys typically prefer work that is practical and active. Education is therefore thought to be a feminine institution; • with the decline of the primary sector and the feminisation of many secondary sector jobs, some boys may feel that there is little point in trying hard in school when there are no jobs available for them in society; • laddish behaviour – boys may belong to anti-school or anti-learning subcultures in which they think they will lose status in front of their peers if they are seen to be working hard in school (Willis); • social control – girls are still more likely to be heavily socially controlled outside school than boys. Boys are more likely to have later curfews and be outside playing with their friends whereas girls are often found in their bedrooms (McRobbie’s bedroom subculture) which is more conducive to study; • boys are said to be overly confident and so over estimate their own intelligence and abilities, they believe they can do well without trying hard. Girls are typically more likely to underestimate their ability and so work harder to try and be successful; • teachers may treat boys and girls differently in schools, poor behaviour may be more tolerated in boys as teachers think this is ‘normal’ whereas it will be sanctioned if a girl does it. This means boys spend more time not involved in their learning than girls do; • some ethnic minority boys may feel a double pressure – because of both their maleness and their ethnicity. Afro-Caribbean boys, for example, are often involved in hyper-masculine behaviour which goes against all school values and often results in sanctions; • working class students may already suffer from a lack of status in society and so use school as a way of trying to improve their status – through being the class clown or being cheeky to the teacher – Cohen status frustration theory; 8 Candidates need to explain different reasons why some boys underachieve in education compared to girls. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(d) • girls are still thought by many to be socialised to be more passive than boys, this will then translate to them being more conformist in school and so more likely to do well; • media role models for males often emphasise violence, hyper masculinity and anti-education values which can lead to male under-achievement as compared to girls; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) To what extent is there meritocracy in education? Arguments for: • in most modern industrial societies education is free giving everyone an equal chance of educational success; • functionalists believe that education is characterised by meritocratic principles whereby those who put the effort in will be rewarded; • educational success is measured by sitting examinations which reward those who have worked and tried hard; • standardised curriculum – e.g. national curriculum – this ensures that all students are taught the same core subjects and content thus making it meritocratic; • success in education mirrors societal values of having a strong work ethic and ensures that it is those most deserving of success, regardless of class, gender or ethnicity, who achieve it; • educational success can improve the life chances of those from poorer backgrounds allowing them upward social mobility as long as they demonstrate a good work ethic; • most educational establishments operate some system of setting and streaming which means that those who work the hardest to achieve their best will be rewarded with challenging lessons and high teacher expectations; • at the opposite end of the spectrum, those who do not take education seriously and do not work hard will find themselves in the bottom sets, sometimes unable to sit a full range of qualifications – this is only fair; • even for private schools that charge fees, bursaries and scholarships are available to those poorer students who have worked hard to achieve well to ensure that they can also access the best education, regardless of family income; • other reasonable response. 15 Candidates are likely to engage with the functionalist theory of education in their ‘For’ arguments. This view can then be criticized in the ‘Against’ section and/or other theoretical explanations can be considered, e.g. Marxist views of meritocracy. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) Arguments against: • the best qualifications are typically gained in private schools, as these are fee paying this cannot be meritocratic; • not all schools receive the same levels of funding, resources or support which means that schools aren’t operating on an equal playing field – they’re not meritocratic; • material deprivation may compromise the notion of meritocracy as not all students can afford private tutors, additional learning resources, internet access, etc.; • feminists argue that in some cultures a boy’s education is prioritised over a girl’s, meaning that boys have greater chances of educational success; • due to teacher stereotypes and expectations some groups of students may be thought to be less capable than others which may result in them being placed in lower sets where they are unable to achieve highly; • an ethnocentric curriculum may mean that ethnic minority students feel alienated from the education system and so don’t have the same chances to be successful; • teachers label some students as bright and others as unintelligent, this can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy or a halo effect – either result is not meritocratic; • education is seen to be a middle class institution based on middle class values and norms – those who possess the most cultural capital are typically the most successful. This is nothing to do with how hard a person works; • schools use an elaborated code in their teaching and assessment which is thought to favour the higher classes who also use this code at home, unlike the lower classes who use a restricted code; • Marxists believe that education is not meritocratic as it benefits the ruling class more than the working class through factors such as private education, the hidden curriculum and unequal economic capital; Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) • gender – an examination based system of assessment is thought to favour boys over girls whereas a coursework based system seems to favour girls – this is not meritocratic; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 15

The education system uses sanctions and rewards which many sociologists consider to be as important as teaching knowledge and skills and ga…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘sanctions’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. punishment. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. any way in which children are reprimanded or receive something negative for something they have done. 2 Examples are likely to be used in this question. 2(b) Describe two ways students’ subject choice can be influenced by gender. Possible answers: • male subject choice – boys are more likely to select physical or higher status subjects such as P.E., Woodwork, Business Studies, Economics – often linked to the breadwinner role; • female subject choice – girls are more likely to select communication based/expressive subjects often seen as ‘softer’, e.g. Health and Social Care, Sociology, Sewing, Cooking – often linked to the domestic role; • vocational education – manual work and sport is perceived as being ‘for males’ and beauty/caring courses for females; • the family – socialisation here may still be different according to gender (e.g. Oakley’s work on manipulation/canalisation) which would then influence students in the subjects they chose at school; • teacher expectations/labelling – teachers may influence student subject choice through acting as role models, conversations with students, setting, etc.; • peer pressure – males are pressured by their peer group to choose masculine subjects such as P.E., whereas girls may be pressured into more feminine subjects such as Health and Social care – fear of negative sanctions; • careers advice – advisors may suggest particular subjects to support particular careers which are often influenced by gender, e.g. expressive subjects if you want to work with people; 4 Candidates will describe two different ways that students’ subject choice can be influenced by gender. Candidates may describe the subjects chosen by males and/or females and link this to gender or consider what influences students to make these choices, e.g. family, teachers. Either way is fine to credit. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(b) • textbook representations – textbooks may still be heavily stereotyped when it comes to gender representations, e.g. girls reading books, boys using ICT; • type of school attended – attending a single sex school may reduce gender bias when it comes to a student’s subject choice; • science labs – research shows that these are typically dominated by males (students and teachers) and therefore this may influence male students to choose science and female students not to; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(c) Explain how linguistic influences from the family can affect educational achievement. Possible answers: • social class – Bernstein – the higher classes are likely to use the school language of the elaborated code at home with the family and therefore it is easy to transfer this linguistic code to school; • social class – Bernstein – the lower classes are more likely to be socialised through the restricted code which is the opposite to that which is required and valued at school thus making achievement more difficult; • ethnic minorities may be brought up with a different first language than that used at school, that makes achievement more difficult; • dual language – being brought up knowing more than one language (bilingualism, for example) can often advantage the student in education, e.g. in an international school where the home language may not be the language of the classroom or the examination; • certain cultures may use a form of dialect such as patois as a way of communicating, e.g. Jamaicans. This is alien to the school culture and so makes achievement more difficult; • the kind of language used by ethnic minorities (Labov) may be thought by teachers to be wrong and ungrammatical thus causing them to label those students as ‘unintelligent’. They may end up in lower sets and thus be less successful in school; • teacher labelling – students who are not perceived to communicate ‘well’ in schools because of the language used at home may be judged as less bright by their teachers – this can be de-motivating and thus negatively affect achievement; • any other reasonable response. 6 Candidates should consider how linguistic influences (language) from home and the family can affect how well an individual does at school. It is likely that social class and/or ethnicity will be the focus of the response, but this needs to be linked (at least implicitly) to educational achievement. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(c) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(d) Explain why material factors can influence educational success. Possible answers: • examination results are typically highest in private schools – only the rich can afford for their children to attend these elite schools; • some schools have more funding than others which can affect the amount and quality of resources and thus affect educational success; • home factors – if the family home is overcrowded and living conditions are not great, lower class students may find it difficult to study effectively; • those from lower income families may not be able to afford to participate in the extra-curricular activities and visits that a school offers, so missing out on opportunities to gain the capital thought to be so important for educational success; • inadequate diet – not everyone can afford the more expensive fresh food and diet is thought to be a major influence on an individual’s educational success; • poorer students may have to combine part time jobs with studying at school in order to help their families, this makes achieving highly far more difficult; • poorer families may not be able to support their children through university so perhaps limiting their educational success; • if a child has not gone to preschool education (often has to be paid for) then she/he may start primary education already at an educational disadvantage to those richer children who have had this experience; • richer parents can buy in private tutors and additional resources to try and boost their child’s educational performance in selection tests and external examinations; • any other reasonable response. 8 Candidates need to explain different reasons why material factors (money) can influence educational success. Candidates may well focus on social class within their answers (higher class advantage and/or lower class disadvantage) these are fine to credit. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well- focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) To what extent does private education challenge the functionalist view that education is meritocratic? Arguments for: • private education gets better results and is fee paying – this excludes some students from being able to attend; • private schools operate the old boys network and so make it easier for some students to access elite jobs and experiences than others – social capital; • private schools attract the best paid and best qualified teachers therefore this, alongside small class sizes, makes private education superior – this is not meritocratic; • private schools according to Marxists foster a culture of elitism, making those that attend feel they are superior to others because of their wealth, education and status; • top universities in the world are dominated by private school students, e.g. Cambridge and Oxford in the UK which seems to suggest that a private education results in improved life chances; • studies show that there is a correlation between a person achieving a well-paid, elite, high status job in society and their attendance at a private school, this is not meritocratic; • Marxists believe private schools are a tool of the state that exists in order to ensure that the higher classes pass on their privileges to their children so resulting in social closure; • many private schools are single sex and may reflect the gendered culture of the society meaning that one gender has improved life chances over the other; • private schools typically operate an interview policy with parents and students as part of the selection process. Those from the higher classes are more likely to get through this procedure as they already have the elaborated code and cultural capital (Bourdieu) that is so highly valued by private schools; • any other reasonable response. 15 Candidates are likely to outline functionalist views of education looking at the positive factors and meritocracy. This can then be evaluated with alternative explanations such as Marxism. Relevant points may also be made that are not linked to a specific theory, such as the benefits of private education – these are still fine to credit. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) Arguments against: • private schools all offer scholarships and bursaries to ensure that those intelligent students from poorer backgrounds are able to attend; • curriculum – the (national) curriculum is standardised across different types of school and therefore what a pupil is taught is the same regardless of which type of school is attended – this is meritocratic; • compensatory education schemes and positive discrimination means that in some circumstances a poorer student has a better chance of being accepted to a private school than a higher class student regardless of their intelligence or test scores; • in private schools, teachers do not necessarily have to be qualified and therefore it may well be that students that attend these types of schools actually receive a worse quality education than that provided by the state; • competition exists even within a private school – in order to achieve success hard work and effort is still required, i.e. meritocracy; • it is actually meritocratic that the best students are offered the best opportunities for success in private schools (role allocation or sifting and sorting); • in a postmodern society characterised by diversity, private schools sit alongside many other different types of schools as just another option for parents and students – there are educational institutions to suit everybody today; • students who work hard at school will do well and be duly rewarded regardless of the type of school attended; • it is only a minority of students that receive a private education – most students will be educated in the state/comprehensive system which is meritocratic as all students can be admitted; • any other reasonable response. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response, but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and a clear focus on the question. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 16

There are many different types of schools students can attend today, such as private and state schools. Experiences of education and educat…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘state schools’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. a comprehensive school. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. schools that are run directly or indirectly by the government. this question. 2(b) Describe two school factors, apart from the type of school, that may affect a student’s educational achievement. Possible answers: • good schools have better examination results than bad schools (Rutter), e.g. high expectations of pupils, quality teaching, system of rewards, teacher role models; • teacher expectations – teachers may assume that working class students are less intelligent than higher class students and so they are more likely to be placed in the lower sets which may result in a self-fulfilling prophecy; • teacher expectations – higher class students may be seen as more intelligent by teachers thus are more likely to be in the higher sets and experience the halo effect; • the peer group a student mixes with inside school is likely to affect achievement, e.g. whether the student joins a pro or an anti-school subculture; • Marxists believe the hidden curriculum in schools encourages working class underachievement and vocational rather than academic aspirations; • Becker states that teachers label students – they have a picture in their heads of the ‘ideal student’ and those that match this stereotype are more likely to achieve well in school; • Rosenthal and Jacobson – when teachers believe students are bright, they challenge and push them more and so the students achieve higher results; 4 Candidates will describe two school factors that may affect a student’s educational achievement – any that describe home, cultural or linguistic factors should not be credited. Type of school attended should also not be credited. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(b) • setting and streaming students is seen to limit what they are able to achieve academically; • there may be gendered expectations in school transmitted through the hidden curriculum that may result in gendered subject choice and achievement; • there may be an ethnocentric curriculum in place that alienates certain students and so negatively affects their educational achievement; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how social control can be experienced in education. Possible answers: • formal social control – if a student breaks a recognised rule then they can expect to be punished through a series of written sanctions by a teacher; • social control may be physical, such as corporal punishment; • social control may be to do with time, e.g. detentions, isolations and exclusions; • social control can be informal – teachers looks, words and instructions will often ensure the student conforms; • social control can also be exercised in schools through the peer group – peer group pressure, for example. This may result in the formation of pro or anti-school subcultures; • bullying from peers may control students through pressure and coercion; • social control may be through negative sanctions – these act to punish students for their actions and deter them from doing them again; 6 Candidates should consider how social control can be experienced in education/schools. Candidates may refer to informal or formal social control or a combination of the two. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(c) • social control may be positive through a system of rewards and praise to encourage conformity; • social control can be experienced in different ways according to the gender/ethnicity/class of the student, e.g. boys are more likely to be excluded from school than girls; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(d) Explain why some boys underachieve in education compared to girls. Possible answers: • most school work is based on reading and writing whereas boys typically prefer work that is practical and active. Education is therefore thought to be a feminine institution; • with the decline of the primary sector and the feminisation of many secondary sector jobs, some boys may feel that there is little point in trying hard in school when there are no jobs available for them in society; • laddish behaviour – boys may belong to anti-school or anti-learning subcultures in which they think they will lose status in front of their peers if they are seen to be working hard in school (Willis); • social control – girls are still more likely to be heavily socially controlled outside school than boys. Boys are more likely to have later curfews and be outside playing with their friends whereas girls are often found in their bedrooms (McRobbie’s bedroom subculture) which is more conducive to study; • boys are said to be overly confident and so over estimate their own intelligence and abilities, they believe they can do well without trying hard. Girls are typically more likely to underestimate their ability and so work harder to try and be successful; • teachers may treat boys and girls differently in schools, poor behaviour may be more tolerated in boys as teachers think this is ‘normal’ whereas it will be sanctioned if a girl does it. This means boys spend more time not involved in their learning than girls do; • some ethnic minority boys may feel a double pressure – because of both their maleness and their ethnicity. Afro-Caribbean boys, for example, are often involved in hyper-masculine behaviour which goes against all school values and often results in sanctions; • working class students may already suffer from a lack of status in society and so use school as a way of trying to improve their status – through being the class clown or being cheeky to the teacher – Cohen status frustration theory; 8 Candidates need to explain different reasons why some boys underachieve in education compared to girls. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(d) • girls are still thought by many to be socialised to be more passive than boys, this will then translate to them being more conformist in school and so more likely to do well; • media role models for males often emphasise violence, hyper masculinity and anti-education values which can lead to male under-achievement as compared to girls; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) To what extent is there meritocracy in education? Arguments for: • in most modern industrial societies education is free, giving everyone an equal chance of educational success; • functionalists believe that education is characterised by meritocratic principles whereby those who put the effort in will be rewarded; • educational success is measured by sitting examinations which reward those who have worked and tried hard; • standardised curriculum – e.g. national curriculum – this ensures that all students are taught the same core subjects and content thus making it meritocratic; • success in education mirrors societal values of having a strong work ethic and ensures that it is those most deserving of success, regardless of class, gender or ethnicity, who achieve it; • educational success can improve the life chances of those from poorer backgrounds allowing them upward social mobility as long as they demonstrate a good work ethic; • most educational establishments operate some system of setting and streaming which means that those who work the hardest to achieve their best will be rewarded with challenging lessons and high teacher expectations; • at the opposite end of the spectrum, those who do not take education seriously and do not work hard will find themselves in the bottom sets, sometimes unable to sit a full range of qualifications – this is only fair; • even for private schools that charge fees, bursaries and scholarships are available to those poorer students who have worked hard to achieve well to ensure that they can also access the best education, regardless of family income; • any other reasonable response. 15 Candidates are likely to engage with the functionalist theory of education in their ‘For’ arguments. This view can then be criticized in the ‘Against’ section and/or other theoretical explanations can be considered, e.g. Marxist views of meritocracy. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) Arguments against: • the best qualifications are typically gained in private schools, as these are fee paying this cannot be meritocratic; • not all schools receive the same levels of funding, resources or support which means that schools aren’t operating on an equal playing field – they’re not meritocratic; • material deprivation may compromise the notion of meritocracy as not all students can afford private tutors, additional learning resources, internet access, etc.; • feminists argue that in some cultures a boy’s education is prioritised over a girl’s, meaning that boys have greater chances of educational success; • due to teacher stereotypes and expectations some groups of students may be thought to be less capable than others which may result in them being placed in lower sets where they are unable to achieve highly; • an ethnocentric curriculum may mean that ethnic minority students feel alienated from the education system and so don’t have the same chances to be successful; • teachers label some students as bright and others as unintelligent, this can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy or a halo effect – either result is not meritocratic; • education is seen to be a middle class institution based on middle class values and norms – those who possess the most cultural capital are typically the most successful. This is nothing to do with how hard a person works; • schools use an elaborated code in their teaching and assessment which is thought to favour the higher classes who also use this code at home, unlike the lower classes who use a restricted code; • Marxists believe that education is not meritocratic as it benefits the ruling class more than the working class through factors such as private education, the hidden curriculum and unequal economic capital; Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) • gender – an examination based system of assessment is thought to favour boys over girls whereas a coursework based system seems to favour girls – this is not meritocratic; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Question Answer Marks Guidance 2(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response, but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 17

Societies and cultures are changing rapidly and it is in the media that the biggest changes are occurring. New media is very different to t…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘broadcasting’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. TV and radio. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. transmitting radio or TV to large audiences. 4(b) Describe two ways young people are living in a media culture. 4 Candidates will be expected to describe two ways young people are living in a media culture. This may be demonstrated through examples. Possible answers: • time – young people spend more time interacting with and using the media than any other age group; • interactivity – new media immerses young people into a way of life where online communication and relationships become the norm; • social media – most young people take part in social media, sharing stories, photos, videos, etc., virtual communities are part of most young people’s lives; • digital natives – young people have been brought up to see new, digital media as the norm therefore it forms a part of their everyday norms and values; • postmodernism – these theorists claim that society is now so media saturated that a young person’s way of life is dominated by the media; • citizen journalism – the ability to film and share live news and events via the internet means that young people are continuously living in a media culture; 4(b) • cult of celebrity – celebrities, reality TV stars and sports people have become role models and ‘stars’ for young people who follow them on social media, subscribe to fan sites and engage with their websites, e.g. influencers; • postmodernism – hyper-reality = the media constructs for young people a world that they have no real life experience of, thus creating reality through a media culture; • advertising – the proliferation of advertising and marketing opportunities in all areas of life means that young people are now living in a media culture; • convergence – technology has developed to allow young people to access media across various different platforms from a wide variety of devices – a portable and instant media culture is formed; • pluralism – competition and choice = more media is available and targeted at young people than ever before; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how new media is interactive. 6 Candidate’s should consider the ways that today’s media allow for interactivity. Possible answers: • personalised media usage – e.g. having news on particular topics emailed directly to you; • create own media – write a blog, create a website, upload videos and/or photos, tweet (Twitter), etc. (user generated content); • online discussion – contribute to this via forums, social media and message boards and reply immediately to others; • role play and gaming – immersing yourself into a fantasy world and role playing a particular part, often competing against users in other countries and communicating with them through the medium/game; • instant voting on live TV for something or someone, e.g. a talent show winner, a point of view, a multi-choice quiz question; • citizen journalism – the audience can now create media material through uploading live footage; • youtube channels/Instagram/tiktok, etc. – allow members of the audience to create their own media output and interact with viewers or comment on other creators channels/posts/videos; • social media influencers and vloggers regularly interact with their fans and let them ‘into their virtual lives’, e.g. Zoella; • other reasonable response. 4(c) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 4(d) Explain why the media is an important agency of socialisation. 8 Candidates should discuss reasons why the media is an important agency of socialisation. They are likely to discuss processes such as imitation and/or specific examples and case studies. Possible answers: • Marxism – the media convey the dominant norms, values and ideology and so keep the population in a state of false consciousness; • postmodernism – the media saturated society and multiple platforms that now dominate the industry makes it easier than ever before for people to be influenced by the media; • feminism – believe messages and images in the media are patriarchal and that this becomes represented as normal – so teaching the audience to think of males and females in very different ways, e.g. stereotyping; • invisibility – by giving some social groups prominence in the media and invisibilising others, the media is highly influential in determining what the audience think of as ‘normal’/important; • male gaze – the media objectifies females for the pleasure of males – this legitimises the need for women to look a certain way in society in order to be seen as beautiful (Mulvey); • re-socialisation – the media can be an important agency of re- socialisation for some ethnic groups (Gillespie) helping to transmit and interpret society’s norms and values; • imitation – media theories such as the hypodermic model suggest that audiences copy what they see/hear in the media, particularly vulnerable groups such as children – copycat violence is one such example; • role models – members of the audience look up to people in the media and thus their ability to influence views and appearance are huge, e.g. the cult of celebrity, social media influencers; 4(d) • the media is said to be an important form of political socialisation – presenting the ‘status quo’ as normal and either omitting or ridiculing more radical and alternative viewpoints (Glasgow University Media Group); • the media is a secondary agency of socialisation and is thus important (along with the other agents) in reinforcing cultural norms and values; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent is the media free from control and bias? 15 Candidates are likely to debate traditional media against new media, although this is not prescriptive. All valid answers and examples should be credited. It is likely that issues of content, control and ownership will be considered. Possible answers: FOR • pluralism – the media simply reflects and responds to its audience therefore it is free from control and bias; • narrowcasting – today’s digital media is able to cater for niche, specialist audiences and alternative viewpoints as well as the more traditional mass appeal broadcasting content therefore it is not biased, there is something for everyone; • ownership – the media is made up of both large corporations and independent companies therefore cannot be accused of bias; • citizen journalism – the public are now uploading media items themselves as they happen, e.g. news stories to the internet – this means today’s media is free from control and bias; • cost – the internet has meant that former issues of cost that prevented many groups from being able to create content has now been removed, so making the media free from control and bias; • access – the internet and the web mean that the media is now global, we are being exposed to cultural diversity on a regular basis so seeing different world perspectives – this makes the media free from control and bias; • muted voices – new media has given a voice and a space to those minority/powerless groups that previously found it hard to be part of the media, e.g. ethnic minorities, women, the disabled, demonstrating how the media is now free from control and bias; • hashtag campaigns – have allowed groups who feel an injustice or sense of discrimination to use the internet to connect with many others and to spread their message globally, e.g. #metoo – this demonstrates how the media is free from control and bias; • audience as producer – the audience and producer divide is no longer clear as audiences can create media, e.g. websites, upload material (prosumers) meaning there is little control and media is not biased; • digital media – this is ever-changing and global and thus is impossible to control; • due impartiality – many broadcasters are bound by codes of conduct that prevent them from being biased, e.g. the BBC/C4; • postmodernism – they believe the media today is a diverse institution with no ‘top down’ hierarchy – this means that the media cannot be controlled or used for propaganda or convey a dominant ideology; • other reasonable response. 4(e) AGAINST • media conglomerates increasingly dominate the ownership of the media and are increasing their powers further through diversification; • new media may be more free from control and bias but this is not the case for traditional media which is still highly regulated; • news values – these still determine the types of stories that typically make the news, resulting in homogenous and stereotypical content that is often biased, e.g. moral panics; • digital divide – based on factors such as money, location and age – mean that certain audience groups are not able to readily access and/or produce media content therefore for many people the media is as controlled and biased as it has ever been; • state control – regulatory bodies such as the BBFC and PEGI determine what can and cannot be included in media content, so controlling media; • censorship – this can be done by either private bodies or governments in order to control the content and distribution of media content which often results in biased output; • media gatekeepers – these are still typically male, middle class, white and middle aged – so reducing the diversity of content and opinion available in the media meaning that biased content remains the norm; • radical viewpoints – these are typically not easily available in the media with most content following the dominant ideology which is heavily controlled and very biased (GUMG); • Marxists – they believe that the media is a tool of the ruling class used to control the minds of the proletariat through the normalisation of capitalism and conservative indoctrination (Miliband) in its biased content; • Marxism – alternative/radical views in the media are typically marginalised and/or invisibilised meaning that the media controls its biased content; • propaganda – this is still a feature of the media proving that control and bias are still inherent to the industry, e.g. preventing the government and its policies favourably; • other reasonable response. 4(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 18

Patterns of educational achievement vary across social groups. This has led some sociologists to question how fair the education system is …

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘social conformity’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. following the rules. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. fitting in with the social expectations for behaviour. 2(b) Describe two patterns of educational achievement. 4 Candidates will be expected to describe two patterns of educational achievement. The answer is likely to focus on social factors such as gender, social class and ethnicity. Possible answers: • gender – in many developing countries boys are more likely to receive an education than girls meaning that they achieve better; • gender – in modern industrial societies girls typically achieve higher than boys in terms of the amount of qualifications gained and the grades/levels achieved; • gender – subject choice – educational achievement is dependent upon the subjects chosen for study e.g. in the UK sociology is dominated by females, PE by males; • gender – over time – in modern industrial societies pre-1990’s boys achieved better than girls; • gender – over time – both boys and girls achieve better today than in the past; • gender – university – in modern industrial societies more girls are going to university than boys and achieving highly; • ethnicity – ethnic minority groups in a country typically do less well e.g. in the USA African-American students do not achieve as well as white American students; • ethnicity – traveller children (Roma/gypsies) typically do not do well within education; • ethnicity – in the UK, Indian and Chinese students achieve the best; • social class – students eligible for free school meals do less well than those who don’t qualify for this support; • social class – the higher a students’ social class position, the better they are likely to do in education; • social class – students in private schools achieve higher than students in state/government schools (better resources etc.); • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how the culture of masculinity may affect the educational 6 achievement of males. Candidates should discuss how the culture of masculinity may affect the educational achievement of males. Effects on educational achievement may be negative, positive or a combination of both. Possible answers: • boys may choose different subjects to girls e.g. PE, Design etc. as they feel they can do well in them; • boys’ leisure activities e.g. sports, video games may lead them to focus on activities not linked to school – this may negatively affect their educational achievement; • pressure to be masculine may lead some boys to join anti-school subcultures and so negatively affect their educational achievement e.g. Willis ‘the lads’; • aggressive masculine norms may mean that boys get into fights and arguments at school and so receive more sanctions, negatively affecting their educational achievement; • masculine behaviour e.g. toughness, street smartness etc. is not valued in education and so may result in teachers negatively labelling boys, thus leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy of underachievement; • wanting to look ‘cool’ may mean that boys do not study as much as girls leading to them being placed into lower sets thus negatively affecting their educational achievement; • the culture of masculinity may attract boys to gangs meaning that they drop out of school and do not succeed in their exams; • the culture of masculinity in schools may suggest male dominance and success e.g. males in positions of authority – these male role models may encourage boys to do well in school; • culture of masculinity in wider society makes boys believe they are more powerful and dominant than girls therefore they do not feel that they need to try at school as they are already dominant; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 2(d) Explain why there are different types of schools. 8 Candidates should discuss the reasons why there are different types of schools. It is likely that specific types of schools will be explicitly discussed. Possible answers: • marketisation of education – means there needs to be choice in place for parents and students to decide which school a child attends; • single sex schools – proven to get higher results than mixed sex schools so feminists may say this is empowering for females; • faith schools – in a secular society little religious education may be taught at schools, therefore faith schools allow for the teaching of particular religious beliefs, norms and values; • private schools – typically produce the best results in the education system so allow parents who can afford the tuition fees to send their children there (selective education; • comprehensive education – based on principles of equality (meritocracy) and allow any student to attend, so giving equal opportunities to all; • special schools – allow students with additional needs e.g. learning disabilities, to be specifically supported and catered for in their education; • primary schools – allows for a more generic curriculum to be taught to students that inculcates them with society’s norms and values; • secondary schools – allows for a more specialist and academic curriculum to be followed, building upon the foundations taught at the primary level; • technical schools – allows students to be best prepared for the world of work through vocational courses and qualifications; • Marxism – private schools maintain social inequalities through the creation of an elite education for the rich – needed to support capitalism and elitism; • choice – different types of schools mean that everyone’s needs are catered for (postmodernism) in a diverse society; • parental attitudes and beliefs – Montessori schools are thought by some to be a more natural and enjoyable way for children to learn that help students develop the social, emotional, and intellectual skills they need for long-term success in school and in life; • IQ – different types of schools exist in order to cater for different ability levels of students e.g. the tripartite system, academic vs vocational schools etc.; • other reasonable response 2(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent is the education system fair? 15 Candidates should consider the ways in which the education system can be seen to be fair. In evaluation, the reasons why it is not so fair or not fair for everyone should be discussed. Possible answers: FOR • functionalism – the education system is meritocratic; everyone has the same opportunities to be successful; • equality legislation – this ensures that all social groups are given the right to education and that they cannot be discriminated against by teachers; • option subjects – these allow students to choose their own curriculum path that best suits their own talents and interests – this is clearly fair; • national curriculum – this ensures that all students study the same core subjects so that everyone has the same basic grounding; • setting and streaming – students are put into classes that best suit their needs and abilities – this gives everyone the best chance of being educationally successful; • both vocational and academic educational qualifications are available to students – this allows them to make the best choice for themselves; • scholarships – fee paying schools offer scholarships and bursaries to ensure that money does not prevent bright students from receiving a top education; • selective role – education acts as a filtering system (functionalism) to ensure that the brightest students are stretched and challenged to achieve highly and the weaker students are offered courses and levels that better suit their needs; • comprehensive schools – anyone can attend this type of school, regardless of educational ability or social factors, so making the system fair; • parental choice – in a lot of countries, parents have free choice to decide where to apply for their child’s schooling, making the system fair; • other reasonable response. 2(e) AGAINST • private education (Marxism) – fee paying private schools get better exam results on average than state schools, meaning that those students who can afford to attend are likely to do better due to factors such as higher expectations, smaller class sizes and better schools resources; • ethnocentric curriculum – if the curriculum is biased towards the majority group in society and marginalises other ethnic and cultural experiences then this cannot be fair; • gendered subject choice – feminists believe that students subject choices remain gendered and that this is often encouraged by teachers and careers advisors – this can limit certain fields of high status/high paying employment later in life; • role modelling – positions of authority in schools are said to be dominated by white males – this implies that other social groups are less likely to be successful which is not fair; • cultural capital (Bourdieu) – middle class children arrive at school with the norms and values that are inherent in an academic education, this makes school an easier and more enjoyable experience for them; • material deprivation – those students across all schools who can afford private tutoring, revision resources and study supports are likely to do better than those who cannot – this isn’t fair; • funding – schools in different areas, even within the same country, are funded at different levels per pupil meaning that some schools have more opportunities than others to offer more extra-curricular activities, smaller teacher-pupil ratios and more specialist equipment and teachers; • teacher labelling – this has been proven to disadvantage certain groups of students in schools who are stereotyped to be ‘troublemakers’ or ‘less bright’ – this is not fair; • other reasonable response. 2(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 19

Some sociologists argue that globalisation has improved equality in the media. Other sociologists believe there is now a digital divide and…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘moral panic’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. a negative media story. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. an exaggerated social reaction to deviance, creating public fear. 4(b) Describe two ways globalisation has affected the media. 4 Candidates will be expected to describe two ways globalisation has affected the media. They could consider factors such as content, ownership, access, distribution etc. Possible answers: • access – media is now instantly available around the globe via the internet and digital technology; • ownership – large media companies typically own and distribute media across the globe e.g. Disney; • streaming – digital media can be streamed live from nearly all areas of the globe to anywhere in the world; • media products – products today are often made for a global rather than a national audience e.g. advertising and the lowest common denominator; • non-Western media – because the media is now global, non-Western products can be accessed globally e.g. Nollywood films; • the global village – McLuhan – new media has made the media world a smaller place making it easier for consumers to access material from anywhere in the world; • culture – globalisation may mean that local cultures are swamped with western culture spread by the media and so may dilute their own language, culture and traditions; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how different ethnic groups use the media. 6 Candidates should discuss how different ethnic groups use the media. Possible answers: • specialist media from the ethnic minority’s country of origin is now widely available in the native language through for e.g. satellite TV, allowing cultures to be maintained; • different ethnic groups have different cultural traditions that can be incorporated into the media e.g. Nollywood, Bollywood etc; • ethnic minorities are increasingly owning and producing media for their own ethnic community e.g. in the UK Pride magazine, The Voice etc. to demonstrate cultural pride and heritage; • ethnic minorities may not ‘read’ the media in the same way as the ethnic majority and may use the media as a form of cultural borrowing e.g. Gillespie study; • new media has made it increasingly easy for ethnic minorities to produce and access global media targeted specifically at their ethnic group; • ethnic minorities may use the media to reinforce traditional cultural traditions, norms and values; • some ethnic minorities may use media output to learn about the majority culture/language; • to reject a muted voice – interactive new media, user generated content, drill music etc can all give young ethnic minorities a platform to address social inequalities; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 4(d) Explain why some sociologists criticise stereotypical gender 8 representations in the media. Candidates should discuss the reasons why some sociologists criticise stereotypical gender representations in the media. Possible answers: • binary opposition – the media typically shows males and females as opposites e.g. strong males and weak females – this is overly simplistic and untrue; • under-representation – females are said to be under-represented in most areas of the media e.g. main characters are still males, implying that males are more important than females (feminism); • roles – both males and females are shown in a narrow range of roles which can limit their aspirations and opportunities in society; • physical appearance – there remains a focus upon how females look within the media reinforcing stereotypical expectations e.g. McRobbie’s ‘slimblondeness’; • digital manipulation – males and females seen in today’s media are so digitally altered that real people are unable to attain these looks. This leads to people feeling inadequate and unable to reach these levels of perfection and has been linked to rising eating disorders; • passive females – this representation leads to women being perceived as weak as incapable and thus reinforces their subordinate positions in society (feminism); • aggressive males – this representation leads to men being perceived as more dangerous, threatening and criminal than women and may explain the manifold moral panics concerning males and the police targeting of males; • sexualisation of females – feminists are critical of the sexualised representations in the media that have become normalised of women e.g. Mulvey’s male gaze theory; • mental health – gender representations have been criticised for being dangerous to those consuming them e.g. very thin models on the catwalk have been blamed for rises in eating disorders; • hegemonic masculinity (Connell) – the media’s dominant representation of males in this stereotyped way makes it hard for men to show their emotions, take responsibility for childcare and to enter the caring professions; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 4(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent is the hypodermic-syringe model an accurate 15 explanation of how the media affects audiences? Candidates should consider the ways in which the hypodermic-syringe model of media effects is an accurate explanation of how the media affects audiences. In evaluation, the reasons why it may not be accurate should be discussed. Possible answers: FOR • passive audience – if the audience are using the media as a form of entertainment/escapism then they may be more likely to accept the content without question; • 24/7 media – the media is so pervasive in society today that it is difficult to escape it and thus it may be more likely to affect the audience (media culture); • advertising – this industry is based upon the principles from the hypodermic model – that the audience are influenced and persuaded by the media they consume; • propaganda – the media has frequently been used as a source of propaganda throughout history e.g. Nazi Germany, therefore it must be able to influence the audience; • media violence – there have been several instances of the audience copying what they have seen in the media e.g. video games, video ‘nasties’, horror films etc. – this shows the power of the media to influence the audience; • voting – biased coverage of politics and elections in the media demonstrates how the media can influence the audience, e.g. The Sun newspaper in the UK’s influence over election results; • stereotyping – stereotypes are regularly criticised in the media (e.g. gender, ethnic, age etc) as being potentially harmful to people in society and contributing to social inequalities – gender stereotyping in advertising has now been banned, indicating the harmful influence that it must have had upon the audience; • censorship – if there wasn’t truth to the hypodermic model’s claims about the power of the media then there would be no need for censorship in the media; • other reasonable response. 4(e) AGAINST • it is unlikely that the media has direct and immediate effects upon the audience, any effects that it does have are more likely to be built up over time (cultural effects theory); • the hypodermic model’s methodology (Bandura’s experiment) is heavily flawed therefore what credible evidence exists to support this model of media effects?; • the hypodermic model has morphed into the two-step flow model today whereby the role of an ‘opinion leader’ in influencing the audience is thought to be crucial – no mention was made of this in the original hypodermic model; • it is now thought that the effects of the media cannot be generalised in the way that the hypodermic model did – factors such as age, intelligence, gender etc all influence how much we are affected by different forms and content of media; • audience selection – we do not have to believe everything that we consume in the media, different audiences encode the media differently (Hall’s reception theory); • active audience – the audience today are not passive consumers, we choose from a plethora of media options, personalise our consumption, stream, use on-demand services and even create our own media; • Glasgow University Media Group – their research showed that the audience can distinguish between fact and fiction and therefore are not simply soaking up what the media tells them; • uses and gratifications – audiences are in control of what they consume and how it effects them – we choose different forms and varieties of media to serve different need and purposes; • new media – blogs, vlogs, forums, uploads, social media platforms, citizen journalism etc. all mean that the audience is today creating and shaping the media – the very opposite of the claims made by the hypodermic model; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. 4(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 20

The media is funded both publicly and privately. Some sociologists believe that funding affects media content and influences the way some s…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘news values’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. human interest stories. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. general guidelines which determine how much prominence a media outlet gives a news story. 4(b) Describe two negative effects of the media on audiences. 4 Possible answers: • hypodermic syringe – audiences may copy what they consume in the media e.g. children commit acts of violence after playing violent video games; • ‘drip drip’ effect/cultivation theory – repeated exposure to certain images and ways of thinking may mean the audience believe it to be true e.g. that males are more powerful than females; • stereotyping – certain groups are often stereotyped in the media e.g. the disabled, which may affect their identity and life chances; • consumerism – advertising dominates the media today and so may result in audiences believing that they have to spend money in order to be happy; • bias – much media content is biased and if the audience is not aware of this then it may skew their views e.g. political coverage; • norm referencing – the media sets the agenda for what we consider normal and acceptable in society, this may limit the audience’s options; • media saturation – the media culture we now live in may mean that many young people spend more time in the virtual world than the real world, so losing valuable skills of communication; • catfishing/fraud – new media means that internet and social media users may find themselves the victims of cybercrimes; • image and appearance – the media defines what is considered beautiful and attractive in society which may affect the audience e.g. eating disorders have been linked to media representations; • cult of celebrity – the media’s obsession with trivia and shallow activities may divert the audience’s attention away from the real issues in society and so make them passive and reluctant to question/change; • invisibility of alternative/radical viewpoints – Marxists believe the media simply reinforces the ‘status quo’ and so benefits capitalism; • patriarchy – feminists believe that the media is organised by men for the benefit of men and thus can have negative effects on women e.g. through stereotypical representations and the limited number of roles available; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how public funding can affect media content. 6 Possible answers: • public service – being state owned means that the media content has to fulfil certain public service requirements e.g. the BBC in the UK must inform, educate and entertain; • no competition – in some countries the state owned publicly funded media is the only legal broadcaster and therefore faces no competition – this can lead to poor quality and repetitive programmes; • Government bias – media owned by the state may be biased in its content and reporting, following the ‘party line’ e.g. in times of strikes, war or protests; • propaganda – in some countries e.g. Nazi Germany, public funding of state owned media has led to biased (even untrue) versions of events being broadcast; • public funding means that there is less pressure to make a profit, meaning that producing high quality, more ‘risky’ programmes will be allowed; • public funding and providing a public service means that minority group interests can be catered for, which is not always the case with private funding where making a profit is the main interest and focus – niche/independent broadcasting; • due impartiality – public funding in the UK and many other countries requires the provision of unbiased, balanced information for the audience; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 4(d) Explain why new media increases interactivity. 8 Possible answers: • the audience are as important as the producers when it comes to new media as they can comment on existing media, vote on live broadcasts etc. easily through digital technology; • new media allows audiences to personalise their media use e.g. news feeds, social media networks etc., which increases the interactivity; • the audience can create their own media which can, through the internet, reach a huge audience e.g. blogs, vlogs, websites, video uploads etc. – audiences are prosumers; • new media allows users to quickly and easily challenge media content or social issues they disagree with on a global scale and to provide alternatives e.g. the #metoo or #thisgirlcan campaigns were based on interactivity; • new media allows audiences to contribute to online discussions on forums and message boards and reply immediately to others locally, nationally and globally; • social movements and protest groups – new media can be used to galvanise change through online petitions, the organisation of protests and marches etc. through audience interactivity; • citizen journalism – the audience can now upload live videos from their smartphones to the internet as events are unfolding around the world – the news agencies and conglomerates no longer have a hold over what is newsworthy due to the interactive audience; • globalisation – the internet allows ideas and events from all across the globe to be accessible and available to nearly everyone and the inherent technology allows for, and encourages, the audience to be interactive in discussion, online protests, global events etc.; • new media allows users to enter a virtual world where they can role play, game and interact with others on a global scale; avatars can be created in order to play anonymously or in role; • social media has become a crucial part of new media and these platforms encourage audience interactivity through the functions of posts, tweets, feeds, images, status updates, comments etc.; • any other reasonable response. 4(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well- focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent are media representations of females still 15 stereotypical? Arguments for: • under-representation – in most areas of the media females are under-represented e.g. there are few main characters or villains who are female; • narrow range of roles – female media representation does not have the range or diversity that males do e.g. females tend to be confined to the home rather than at work and their relationships e.g. wife, mother etc. are typically shown to be the most important aspects of who they are; • physical appearance – there is still a focus on how a woman looks in the media that is not applied to men e.g. the male gaze (Mulvey) and the need to look young; • image manipulation – women in the media are subjected to much digital manipulation to create representations of perfection (e.g. the magazine industry, celebrity culture etc.) – real women cannot attain these ideals; • passive – women are still shown to be weak and passive in the media, in need of help and support from a ‘hero’ male; • Meehan ‘Ladies of the Evening’ – this study showed how stereotypically females were represented in the media (only 10 female character types were typically seen) – limited range of roles; • feminism – sexist representations of women are said to still be commonplace e.g. sexualised images of women; • binary opposition – males and females are said to still be represented as opposites in the media which reinforces stereotypes e.g. active male, passive female or hero male, victim female etc.; • tokenism – when women do appear occasionally in non-stereotypical roles this may have been done in order to create an illusion of the media being fair when in reality this is not the case; • new media remains a platform for female stereotypes to be found e.g. through sexualised and objectified images etc.; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • female gaze – there is said to be a ‘female gaze’ in the media that allows women to objectify men rather than men objectifying women; • female role models – a number of non-stereotypical female role models now exist in the media who actively challenge the stereotypical representations of women for the younger generation e.g. career women; • equality legislation – laws are now in place to ensure equality for the sexes and this has been seen in the changes to the ways females are represented in the media; • campaigns and pressure groups – when there is a perceived gender inequality in media representations campaigns can be formed to challenge, showcase and change the situation e.g. the BBC allegedly discriminating against older women and the resulting internet and social media campaigns; • social positions of women – these have changed meaning that if the media is to reflect this then representations of women will also 4(e) change e.g. we no longer see women just as housewives or mothers but in a diverse range of roles, as decision makers, employees, in positions of power etc.; • media employment – more women are now employed in the media industry and thus are able to decide upon media content resulting in fewer female stereotypes being seen; • female purchasing power – because females are now more successful in society they are very important to advertisers who must ensure they try and appeal to them – avoiding stereotypes is one way to do this e.g. the ASA now says gender stereotypes should not be seen in advertising at all; • media diversity – the growth of new media has allowed for far more diverse representations of women to be seen so reducing stereotypes; • new media allows women to actively challenge any stereotypical female representations through interactivity and the ability to hear previously muted voices on a global scale; • postmodernism – as gender roles converge in society they also start to do the same in the media, thus reducing stereotypes; • female stars and celebrities – these are now considered ‘big business’ and thus these powerful females are able to act as role models to the female consumers in their non-stereotypical representations; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 4(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 21

As an increasingly important agency of socialisation, the media has a lot of power in society. The media has been accused of stereotyping, …

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘agenda setting’? 2 The ability of the media to make some topics important. One mark for partial definition, e.g. what’s seen/heard in the media. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. the process in which the media selects which stories to report and bring to the public’s attention. 4(b) Describe two examples of interactivity in the media today. 4 Possible answers: • personalised media content i.e. notifications or email alerts, music playlists etc; • the audience can create their own media i.e. uploading videos and photos or writing a blog (prosumers); • audience members contribute to online chats, comments and discussion forums; • global online gaming and role playing; • audience change/influence the content of the media i.e. voting for/against contestants/game shows etc; • citizen journalism – members of the public are using digital technology to contribute to what we see as news; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how the media serves the interests of powerful people in 6 society according to the Marxist perspective. Possible answers: • through exaggerated, selective and distorted media reporting that can be used to give a biased viewpoint that favours the ruling class; • the media convey the dominant ideology and values and so keep people in a state of false consciousness; • the media are owned and controlled by the capitalist class who use the media to maintain their own power and prevent social change and discontentment in the masses; • scapegoating – certain groups are blamed in the media by the ruling class for social problems and so become seen as folk devils – these are typically those with less power in society i.e. the working class, ethnic minorities etc; • the media help capitalism through the advertising industry by creating false needs and making the audience into passive consumers who will work hard for the ruling class in order to buy the products they think they need; • the media divert attention from the important issues in society, feeding the audience with gossip and trivia instead and ridiculing or ignoring radial and alternative ideas; • the ruling class protect their powerful positions through controlling people’s thoughts and beliefs – the media presents a picture that justifies the way things are, the status quo, and persuades people that alternatives are not possible or necessary; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media serves the needs of the powerful people in society. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point e.g. shows a biased viewpoint. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘the media is owned and produced by people in the higher social classes.’ Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the media serves the needs of the powerful people in society. For example, discussing how selective reporting can lead the audience to believe in a common world view that benefits the capitalist class by presenting inequalities as necessary and inevitable. Sociological language and concepts should be expected. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 4(d) Explain why violence in the media may not always increase levels of 8 violence in society. Possible answers: • media violence may be cathartic for the audience i.e. by releasing aggressive impulses through playing violent computer games which does not involve real violence; • the shock effect of seeing violence in the media can cause people to take action against real life violence e.g. public safety campaigns (sensitisation); • much media violence is recognised as being fictional by the audience and thus does not lead to increased levels of violence in society; • violence in the media does not affect everyone in the same way and therefore to link it with increased levels of violence in society is a very generalised statement; • it is difficult to accurately pinpoint the media as a reason for increased levels of violence in society – peers, family, education etc. may all have a role to play; • adults may have a filter to understand the difference between fictional and non-fictional violence; • research, such as Bandura et al, that claims to show a link between media violence and real life violence has been largely discredited – it is an artificial one-off situation; • any violence in the media is seen by a large number of people and yet virtually none of these are influenced by the media to be violent; • active audience approaches, such as the uses and gratifications theory, see the audience as active consumers who make their own decisions and choices about the media they consume and the effects it has on them; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why violence in the media may not increase levels of violence in society. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. ‘we don’t all copy what we see’ without justification/explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why violence in the media may not increase levels of violence in society. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. Candidates may explain some of the reasons e.g. audiences are not passive, they make their own consumption choices AND violence in the media is recognised by the audience to be fictional and thus does not affect their behaviour etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed. 4(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why violence in the media may not increase levels of violence in society and will be well developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented e.g. catharsis, sensitisation, shocking images, active audience etc. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent does the media continue to reinforce gender 15 stereotyping? Arguments for: • images of women seen in the media typically emphasise their physical appearance, the concept of ‘slim-blondeness’; • male gaze theory – Mulvey – the media gives males prominence and reduces women to traditional stereotypes; • females tend to be under-represented in most areas of the media, particularly lead roles and areas/topics considered to be important; • females are shown in a very narrow range of roles and these are typically the stereotypical roles of domestic life, mother, wife, girlfriend etc; • women in the media are typically airbrushed/digitally altered in order to give them an appearance that is not attainable by the audience, the stereotypical sex symbol; • women are shown to be passive, weak and helpless – in need of being rescued by the male hero – a common representation in films, for example; • Meehan’s ‘Ladies of the Evening’ research found females to be very stereotyped in their representations in the media; • hegemonic masculinity is still seen regularly in the media in the representation of males – the strong, action man for example; • males are still shown in the dominant position of head of the household – the breadwinner and the decision maker; • males are shown to be unemotional and if they do show their emotions are often ridiculed or sanctioned; • any other reasonable response. 4(e) Arguments against: • many examples now exist of females in the media playing the kind of roles once dominated by males – detectives, police officers, business people etc; • a diverse range of alternative representations of males can now be seen in the media i.e. the new man/metrosexual – David Beckham, for example; • both males and females are now frequently seen in the media as homosexuals, breaking away from their traditional stereotypical representations; • global media in the postmodern age offers the audience a diverse range of representations of gender that challenge traditional stereotypes; • social positions of men and women in society have changed and thus their representations in the media now reflect this; • with the rise of new media the audience has far more power than ever before to construct its own gender representations which may mean less gender stereotyping is seen; • many media effects theories (e.g. uses and gratifications theory) recognise that the audience are not passive consumers but instead make active choices about what they consume and how it affects them – therefore gender stereotypes in the media may have no effect at all on the audience; • representations of males and females in the media are converging and thus becoming more similar which means a move away from traditional stereotyping; • anti-sexism legislation means that the media have to take care in how they represent different genders in order to avoid complaints and litigation; • female media personnel – more women working in the media e.g. as directors, means less negative stereotyping of women; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of whether the media continue to reinforce gender stereotyping. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided e.g. may mention that women are shown as housewives and men as providers. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms i.e. gender stereotypes are the simplistic and generalised ways that males and females are shown in the media. 4(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether the media continue to reinforce gender stereotyping. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Candidates may give examples of gender stereotypes seen in TV shows, music videos and films. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of whether the media continue to reinforce gender stereotyping. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may discuss the diversity of gender representations seen in the media and the role of the audience in determining whether and how these representations affect them. Examples of gender stereotypes and more contemporary representations are likely to be discussed. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether the media continue to reinforce gender stereotyping. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Candidates may refer to ways in which the new media have changed the idea of representation in the media and given the audience more power to construct their own negotiated and oppositional portrayals of males and females i.e. gendered role reversal etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether the media continue to reinforce gender stereotyping, citing some of the examples given.

Question 22

There are many explanations for crime such as labelling theory and Marxism, as well as explanations which consider age, ethnicity and gende…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘crime prevention’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. surveillance. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. attempts by agencies or individuals to reduce crime, enforce laws and maintain criminal justice. 3(b) Describe two examples of cyber crimes. 4 Possible answers:  spreading computer viruses and malware;  fraud and identity theft;  internet scams targeting individual users e.g. catfishing;  harassment by cyberstalking or cyberbullying;  websites with obscene or offensive content and the spread of such content via email/mobile phone;  the dark web e.g. trade in illegal drugs and other illegal goods;  cyberterrorism – using the internet for deliberate, widespread attacks on computers or computer networks e.g. hacking;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how age can affect criminal behaviour. 6 Possible answers:  youth sub-cultures  young people are more likely than older to join a sub-culture such as Punks or Skins and engage in criminal/deviant behaviour;  gangs  young people may be peer pressured into becoming involved with criminal behaviour such as violence, trafficking and drug dealing;  work  the elderly and the very young are unable to commit white-collar and corporate crime as they do not have access to the workplace  the middle aged do;  crimes related to new technologies  older people do not typically have the ICT/digital skills necessary to engage in many cyber-crimes, making it more likely to be committed by younger people;  status crimes  many crimes committed by younger people are only crimes because of the offenders age e.g. under-age drinking;  Matza  drift theory  this research shows that most younger people drift into minor crimes but as they get older drift back out  they are not career criminals;  juvenile delinquency  Chambliss  this study showed how prolific delinquency was in working class youth;  postmodernism  young people are more likely to commit crime because they are in search of thrills and excitement;  more to lose  older people have more responsibilities and more to lose from a criminal lifestyle therefore are less likely to take part in a crime;  the elderly  may not have the physical strength necessary to commit many crimes;  Japan  ageing population  here there is a big rise in crimes committed by the elderly and special prison accommodation has begun to be built to accommodate these criminals;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why not all males have the same chance of being arrested. 8 Possible answers:  age  younger males are more likely to be arrested than older males due to stereotypes, gang membership, status frustration etc.;  ethnicity  some minority ethnic males are more likely to be stopped and searched than others which will affect the arrest rate  social class  males in the lower social classes are more likely to be arrested due to police targeting and criminalisation of working classes;  material deprivation  Marxism  men who are living in poverty are more likely to be arrested as they are more likely to commit crime;  educational success  those males who have done well in education and gained qualifications are less likely to be arrested than those without qualifications as they form part of the ‘invisible criminals;  types of masculinity  Connell  hegemonic males are more likely to be arrested than new men and other more modern versions of masculinity as they can get into altercations, be resistant to authority etc.;  labelling theory  Becker  some males are labelled as criminal by those in power and thus may suffer from a self-fulfilling prophecy and adopt a deviant career which is likely to involve being arrested;  Cicourel  typical offender  the police and the courts all have a stereotype of who typically commits crime meaning that those males who don’t match up are unlikely to come to the authorities attention;  Chambliss – saints and the roughnecks  this study showed that police were far more likely to arrest working class male ‘roughnecks’ than middle class male ‘saints’, despite them committing the same acts; • socialisation  New Right/Murray  how a male is brought up, his norms and values will influence whether he commits a crime or is arrested; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 3(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is labelling theory the best explanation for crime and 15 deviance? Possible answers: Arguments for:  Labelling theory  Becker  everyone does things that could be labelled criminal but only a small number of people actually get labelled and this then leads to us forming stereotypes of who the criminals are;  self-fulfilling prophecy  being labelled as criminal or deviant causes people to live up to the label and act accordingly;  deviancy amplification  police and other formal agents’ labels can actually cause more crime and deviance in society e.g. Young ‘The Drugtakers’ and Cohen ‘Mods and Rockers’;  police targeting  the police target certain social groups e.g. stop and search rates for some social groups are far higher than for others which explains their distrust of the police and their criminality;  deviant career  when a labelled person’s self-identity starts to change (due to the labelling process) then they may adopt a deviant career and join an organised deviant group e.g. a gang, that justifies and normalises their offending;  Cicourel typical delinquent  this study shows that courts and police have a picture of who typically commits crime and those individuals that fit this picture are more likely to be thought of as criminals;  master status  this status overrides all others and becomes the way an individual sees themselves as well as how others see them  if this is as a criminal then it is not surprising that criminal behaviour continues;  secondary and primary deviance  Lemert  primary deviance refers to acts that are not labelled as criminal, secondary to those that are;  power  labels have such an influence on people because they are given by those in positions of power such as the police, the courts and teachers. This makes the criminal label stick and hard to get rid of thus a life of crime becomes the only option;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  functionalism  some crime and deviance is necessary in society as it reminds people of the boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour thus promoting social order;  Merton’s strain theory  crime occurs when there is a mismatch between individuals’ goals and their ability to achieve these legitimately;  Cohen status frustration  crime is committed because some people feel anger and frustration about their position in society and inability to gain status legitimately;  relative deprivation  in a consumer society many people feel it is unjust that they do not have what others do which may lead some to crime; 3(e)  Marxism  material deprivation  those in poverty are more likely to turn to crime because they need money to survive;  feminism  domestic abuse and sexual assault  this is committed due to patriarchal structures in society and a male need to prove their power and dominance, keeping women ‘in their place’;  Messerschmidt  masculinity  males feel a lot of pressure to be the provider and to act tough  this can sometimes lead to criminal behaviour;  postmodernism  crime is committed because it is thrilling and exciting;  Miller  focal concerns  crime and deviance is committed because many of the norms and values of the working class are similar to crime and deviance;  self-negating prophecy  labels do not have to be lived up to, they can be resisted instead;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 3(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 23

There are many ways to prevent crime, for example effective socialisation and informal social control. Official crime statistics show that …

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘informal social control’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. peers are an agent of informal social control. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. unwritten rules and methods that people use to get others to conform to the norms. 3(b) Describe two examples of white-collar crime. 4 Possible answers  identity theft e.g. stealing a person’s identity in order to use it for illegal purposes;  fraud/embezzlement – theft or misappropriation of funds placed in one's trust or belonging to one's employer;  bribery – using threats, fear and coercion in order to gain financial assets from an individual, institution or a company;  corporate crime – crimes committed by organisations in pursuit of profit for the company;  fiddling expenses – lying or manipulating expenses claims in order to claim more money than you are entitled to;  stealing from the workplace – taking goods/networks/items from the workplace for personal gain;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how police behaviour can affect the official crime statistics. 6 Possible answers:  police targeting – Cicourel typical offender – this means that certain social groups are more likely to be targeted, arrested and prosecuted than others which skews the OCS;  police initiatives – when police forces focus on particular crimes the prosecution rates, and thus the OCS, increase for this crime e.g. drink driving;  resistance – Marxism – high rates of stop and search for some social groups can cause anger and frustration and result in them resisting arrest causing deviancy amplification and a rise in the OCS e.g. recent examples of BLM protests and police arrests;  labelling theory – Becker – if an individual fits the stereotype of a criminal held by the police then they are more likely to be arrested and go through the system e.g. chivalry factor, Pollak, shows how males are more likely to feature in the OCS than females;  feminism – sexual assault and domestic abuse – the police often have little involvement or success in these types of crimes and thus according to the OCS they are rarely committed – in reality the picture is very different;  criminalisation of the working class – Marxism – the police are agents of the state and so ignore corporate, state and green crime in favour of the street crime committed by the working classes – the OCS therefore shows crime to be a working class problem;  surveillance – police surveillance operations can result in more criminals being caught and a surge in the numbers in the OCS;  police racism – institutional racism within the police force may lead to increased levels of stop and search for ethnic minority individuals as well as higher arrest and prosecution rates – this will then distort the picture of crime in the OCS;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why sub-cultures can be linked to crime and deviance. 8 Possible answers:  Merton – a possible response to status frustration is the development of new goals which may lead to a sub-culture emerging with different norms and values to those within wider society e.g. deviant anti-school sub- cultures;  gaining status – crime and deviance in sub-cultures can be a way of gaining status (Cohen) when status cannot be gained by legitimate means;  Cloward and Ohlin – illegitimate opportunity structure – in some working class communities criminal sub-cultures exist with successful role models so young men may choose crime as a career;  conflict sub-culture – violence and gang warfare may be chosen by some individuals as a way to make money;  retreatist sub-culture – drug addiction can be chosen by some individuals when they are unable to be successful either legitimately or illegitimately – drug use and dealing are closely linked with crime and deviance;  Miller – focal concerns – his research saw the behaviour and lifestyles of working class males (a sub-culture) as being closely linked to crime and deviance;  youth sub-cultures – these are often involved in criminal and delinquent behaviour e.g. the Skins, Punks, Chavs etc.;  juvenile gangs – these have recently caused the public much concern through activities such as knife and gun crime;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent can effective socialisation prevent crime? 15 Possible answers: Arguments for:  primary socialisation – in the early years the family has a huge influence over a child’s norms and values and can thus bring them up to understand what is right and wrong, so preventing crime (functionalism);  inadequate socialisation – the New Right (Murray) believes that poor parenting is closely linked to offending, this can be avoided through effective family socialisation in the nuclear family;  feral children – e.g. Oxana/Genie show the damage that ineffective socialisation can do to children – this emphasises the importance of effective socialisation in bringing up well-rounded, non-criminal children;  education – the hidden curriculum and formal control in schools ensures students conform to authority. Marxists say they carry this into wider society and continue to do as they are told, thus preventing crime;  media – the media shows the consequences of criminality and demonises many criminals and types of crime – this deters individuals from committing crime themselves;  religion – this teaches positive norms and values such as kindness, compassion and helping others, the antithesis of criminal behaviour – a religious upbringing can therefore prevent crime;  peer group – if the peer group is conformist and does not commit crime then an individual is unlikely to do so – most peer groups are conformist;  workplace – employees who commit criminal acts will not be employed in certain jobs and can be sacked form their job of a crime is committed;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  individualism – no socialisation process can prevent crime as every individual can make their own decisions about whether to offend;  resistance and rebellion – socialisation teaches individuals the acceptable norms and values of society but cannot ensure that people conform to this therefore crime and deviance can and does occur;  social class – Miller focal concerns – his research shows that the norms and values of working class males are closely linked to criminal behaviour, therefore their socialisation may encourage crime;  poverty – a lack of money and resources may push someone to commit crime, regardless of their socialisation (Marxism);  gender – Messerschmidt believes that males are socialised to be masculine which is linked to criminal behaviour – the norms and values of hegemonic masculinity are closely linked to criminality;  ethnicity – some ethnic/religious groups may have been socialised into different norms and values to wider society and may indulge in behaviour that society defines as criminal;  consumer society – this causes relative deprivation for many which may lead to crime and deviance, socialisation won’t prevent this as consumerism is at the heart of most society’s core values;  formal social control – socialisation is not strict enough to prevent crime. The only agents that can do this are the formal ones such as the courts and prison system; 3(e)  Matza – drift theory – this theory shows that most young people do drift into crime in their adolescence regardless of their socialisation, showing that socialisation cannot prevent crime;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well- developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 24

Education is an important agent of secondary socialisation in which IQ tests are often used to measure intelligence. In modern industrial s…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘secondary socialisation’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. schools are an agent of secondary socialisation OR learning norms and values. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. the period of learning after the primary stage/primary socialisation when norms and values are reinforced OR what is learnt through agencies such as schools in the period after primary socialisation. 2(b) Describe two findings from IQ tests. 4 Possible responses: • Intelligence – IQ tests measure intelligence and show that some children and more intelligent than others; • Social groups – IQ tests have shown that there are patterns of results between different social groups e.g. middle-class pupils tend to score higher than working class students; • Ethnicity – some researchers claim that IQ tests show that there are links between intelligence and ethnicity and that some ethnic groups tend to score better; • Different kinds of intelligence – IQ test findings are based on quite a limited definition of intelligence e.g. reasoning skills are measured; • Processing speed – IQ tests can measure how quickly an individual can memorise/process information; • Nerves/illness – it has been found that feeling nervous or feeling ill can influence results in IQ tests; • Life chances – IQ tests do not necessarily determine a person’s path in life, some people with low IQ test results go on to do well in education and careers, whereas some with high test results do not i.e. they cannot make accurate predictions; • Life chances – IQ tests can be used to determine future life chances i.e. those who score highly on IQ tests are likely to achieve highly in their later examination results too and thus have good life chances e.g. a predictor of ability; • Setting/selection – findings from IQ tests are often used as the basis for internal setting and streaming within schools and as the basis for selection tests for fee-paying and/or grammar schools; • Any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how education is functional for society. 6 Possible responses: • socialisation – the process begun by the family continues in education, allowing norms and values to be reinforced; • social control – the system of rewards and sanctions ensures socially approved behaviour and attitudes are inculcated; • knowledge and skills – students learn the knowledge and skills necessary to best serve the economy; • role allocation – the ‘sifting and sorting’ process found in education ensures that the right people are in the right roles later in life; • sense of belonging – a national pride and sense of social solidarity is nurtured in education through singing the national anthem, learning about one’s own history and culture etc.; • preparation for employment – education ensures that individuals are ‘trained’ ready for the workplace e.g. through the hidden curriculum; • feminism – education continues the culture of patriarchy and so is functional for men as it continues their superiority and dominance within society; • Marxism – education is functional for the ruling class as it supports and normalises capitalism, creating a submissive and unquestioning proletariat workforce; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 2(d) Explain why girls do better than boys in their examination results in 8 many modern industrial societies. Possible responses: • age of maturity – many believe that girls mature earlier than boys and so they are more likely to realise the importance of exams to their future careers than boys i.e. deferred gratification; • female role models – the attitudes and aspirations of girls have increased as there are now more successful female role models for them meaning better exam results for girls; • decline of the housewife role – as dual worker families and working women have become more normalised so girls have started to realise the value of education and their exam results have improved; • equal opportunities – legislation and policy now ensures that girls and boys are given the same opportunities e.g. the national curriculum – girls are therefore encouraged by teachers and careers advisors to aim high – hence better exam results; • positive discrimination – this may be seen particularly in STEM subjects whereby the performance of girls is closely monitored e.g. they may be given priority access to lab equipment or be invited to a girls only STEM club meaning exam results may be higher; • motivation – girls spend longer studying than do boys on average, are more conscientious and better organised – this is likely to lead to better exam performance; • feminism – this has demonstrated on a societal level that girls can achieve and be successful – these attitudes and new norms have trickled down into schools and exam performance too; • culture of masculinity – boys are under pressure from peers to demonstrate laddish behaviour as they are afraid they will suffer from a loss of status if they are seen to be too hard working – this can have a negative effect on their exam results; • traditional male jobs – these are in decline in many societies and so boys may see little point in working hard in school for their exams as there are fewer job opportunities now for them – crisis of masculinity; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 2(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent do material factors affect educational achievement? 15 Possible responses: Arguments for: • quiet space – not having one of these because the family is too poor is likely to hamper educational achievement; • diet – an inadequate diet will negatively affect concentration levels and performance – these are often down to a lack of money for fresh, healthy food; • pre-school – not going to this because it costs too much can mean that poorer children enter education already behind their peers; • fewer resources – not having access to the internet, ICT, revision books, private tutors etc. at home disadvantages a child when in school; • part-time jobs – students that need to work part-time alongside their studies to help support their families will not have the same time available for study which is likely to negatively impact upon performance; • university access – coming from a poor family who cannot financially support their children through education may lower the child’s aspirations in school as they can’t really see the point of it; • extra-curricular activities – poorer students are less likely to be able to afford these e.g. school trips, sporting clubs that require equipment, after- school sessions when they need to look after siblings etc. – this may affect their relationships with teachers and access to cultural capital; • attending a disadvantaged school – being poor reduces parental choice as they cannot afford private education or to move to a better catchment area – this means the education on offer will not be as good as at more affluent schools; • gender – financial hardship may mean that a boy’s education is prioritised over a girl’s; • immigration – some minority ethnic groups have a high proportion of their members in the working class and so are more likely to suffer from material hardship e.g. immigrants forced to take low paid jobs, this will then affect children’s educational achievement; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • cultural factors – many sociologists believe these are far more influential than material factors on educational achievement e.g. cultural capital – access to libraries, trips to museums, the theatre and art galleries, reading at home etc. • linguistic factors – it is not material factors that influence educational achievement but the ability to understand and speak elaborated code the language of schools and educational success – Bernstein; • compensatory education – material deprivation is high on many government agendas and thus compensatory education schemes and positive discrimination are often in place to counter the negative effects of financial hardship on achievement; • ethnicity – it may not be about material factors but instead about ethnicity e.g. the language of the school not being the student’s first language, ethnocentric curriculum, institutional racism etc.; 2(e) • gender – it may not be money but gender that has the biggest effect on educational achievement e.g. in some societies boys’ education is prioritised over girls; • in-school factors – setting and streaming may have more of an effect on a student’s educational achievement than any material factors; • teacher expectations – Becker’s labelling theory – students’ educational achievement will be affected by the way they are treated and perceived by their teachers e.g. a self-fulfilling prophecy may occur; • school attended – research by Rutter demonstrated that some schools and teachers were better than others and that this, rather than any specific material disadvantage, was the reason for differences in educational achievement; • personal motivation – students from all backgrounds can be motivated to succeed through their own ambition and desires for the future – this is not linked to material factors; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. 2(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 25

Some sociologists argue that all media represent dominant news values. However, audiences use the media in different ways. Gender, ethnicit…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘postmodernist’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. a media dominated society OR a pick ‘n’ mix society. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. how the media and society has become more interactive and audience controlled. 4(b) Describe two news values in the media. 4 Possible responses: • negativity – bad news is preferred over good news; • unexpectedness – events that are out of the ordinary; • personalisation – a story with human interest that allows for audience empathy e.g. personal interviews; • elite nations – reference to wealthy countries e.g. the USA has a higher news value than equivalent stories from other countries; • elite individuals – star appeal – royals, celebrities and leading politicians are more likely to make the news than ordinary people; • conflict – a clash of ideas, nations or people can be made more dramatic and so has high news values; • proximity – how close is the event to the audience, either geographically or in terms of beliefs e.g. Western ideologies in UK news; • meaningfulness – if the audience can relate to the story then the news values are higher; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how pluralists view the media. 6 Possible responses: • socialisation – as one of the main agents of socialisation, the media plays a big role in transmitting society’s norms and values; • audience – pluralists believe that the audience shapes the media and the media reflects their views. Thus the media does not influence the audience; • media diversity – a wide and increasing choice of media is available with many independent companies existing alongside the big media corporations; • competition – each media company is in competition with others for profits, therefore they produce what the audience wants – mass appeal; • competition – this also means that quality must be high in the media to attract an audience and prices are similarly kept as low as possible to appeal to the audience; • choice – the development of new and social media gives the audience more choice in what they consume and allows for interactivity; • prosumer – the boundary between audience and producer is starting to blur as we see a rise of citizen journalism and user-generated content according to pluralists; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 4(d) Explain why the hypodermic-syringe model of media effects can be 8 criticised. Possible responses: • direct and immediate effects – this claim of the model has been widely disputed as effects are now thought to be more cumulative i.e. over time; • everyone is affected the same – this claim has been disputed by researchers such as Hall whose reception theory showed how different members of the audience interpret content in different ways; • dominant world view – this claim can be challenged due to the diversity of media forms and content that is now available across the globe, resulting in alternative views; • methodology – the model was based on experiments such as the Bobo Doll which are now discredited due to the artificial environment and the bias; • advertising – the model thought this was particularly important in its ability to persuade people and change their views – with streaming and on-demand media, adverts can now be skipped altogether; • new and social media – as the media industry has developed so the audience have been able to comment on and share their views on the media – interactivity – this means an immediate effect on them is now unlikely; • user-generated content – the audience are now often prosumers and so they can create their own media content meaning it is less likely that they will be directly influenced by media content; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent are patterns of media use affected by the gender of the 15 audience? Possible responses: Arguments for: • new technologies – males engage with new technologies and gadgets more regularly than females e.g. males are much more likely to be ‘gamers’; • genre – males typically choose action, sport and documentaries whilst females choose reality TV, dramas and soaps – information vs entertainment; • choice of channel – feminists have shown that it is males who typically have control and decide what the household are watching; • planning – Morley’s research shows that men carefully plan their media consumption whereas women are more spontaneous; • print media – publications such as broadsheet newspapers are more regularly consumed by males than females, perhaps reflecting greater male presence in the public sphere; • consumption – whilst females multi-task whilst consuming media (e.g. browsing social media whilst watching a TV show) males do not do this – they focus on the media more attentively; • social media – females tend to use visual, image based social media such as Instagram and Pinterest far more than males; • social interaction – uses and gratifications theory – females use the media as a source of interaction, helping them to form personal relationships with others – it’s a social activity. Males prefer uninterrupted forms of consumption on their own; • work and leisure – research shows that males use work-based media far more than females e.g. most regular users of ‘Linkedin’ are males females tend to use media more for entertainment e.g. Instagram; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • gender convergence – in postmodern societies boundaries between male and female behaviours are changing. Thus differences in media use by gender are outdated e.g. the rise of the ‘ladette’ and decline of the hegemonic male (Connell); • media content change – in order to appeal more to males or females, products are changing their content and/or representations of gender e.g. gaming is now becoming more popular with females as the content and characters become de-masculinised; • individualism – in a postmodern world characterised by individualism and choice gender becomes irrelevant when it comes to media usage – there is so much diversity in today’s industry and with narrowcasting on the increase, media usage is about personal choice and interest – not social factors like gender; • age – this social factor is more important than gender – e.g. TV viewing rises considerably in those aged over 50 and social media usage is most popular with teenagers and young adults; • social class – this is more influential than gender in determining media usage e.g. newspapers – tabloids are typically consumed by the lower classes, broadsheets by the higher classes; 4(e) • ethnicity – many ethnic groups consume and produce media materials specific to their own culture and these are rising in popularity. Gillespie found that Punjabi teenagers in the UK enjoyed watching both mainstream and specialist Punjabi programmes; • the digital divide – some groups do not have the same level of access to media as other more privileged groups which affects patterns of media use (e.g. pensioners); • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [912 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 26

Educational achievement is not the same for everyone. Some social groups typically do better than others in examinations. Sociologists deba…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘self−fulfilling prophecy’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. acting like a stereotype; Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when people act in the way they have been expected to, making the expectations come true. 2(b) Describe two examples of ethnocentrism in schools. 4 Possible answers:  history − what is taught in the history syllabus in schools may favour the ethnic majority and thus ethnic minority pupils may learn nothing of their own people’s experiences;  language − the dominant ethnic group’s language may be more valued than ethnic minority groups whose slang or patois may be criticised and devalued;  authors studied − it may be that the authors studied reflect the ethnic majority make–up of the students, implicitly devaluing the culture and literature of ethnic minority groups;  the way the school year and school holidays are organised may make children from some ethnic backgrounds not feel included e.g. based on cultural norms of the ethnic majority;  the curriculum today is often based on the white culture (Troyna and Williams) − in British schools the curriculum is ethnocentric because it ‘gives priority to the white culture and English language’, there is no diversity to the curriculum;  school routines and practices − the kind of food available in a school may reflect the cultural majority and exclude minority ethnic groups; school uniform requirements may reflect culturally dominant values etc.;  Ball − he criticises the school curriculum for being ethnocentric as it routinely ignores the history of minority ethnic groups and what they have achieved;  Student/teacher attitudes – stereotyping – whereby there are negative and/or lower expectations placed on ethnic minority students that devalue their abilities and potential to achieve well;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how material deprivation may affect the educational 6 achievement of students. Possible answers:  type of school attended − attending a disadvantaged school in a poor area that cannot offer as good an education as those in more prosperous areas or private schools will negatively affect aspirations and achievement;  diet − an inadequate diet, lacking in fresh food and nutrients has been shown to lead to problems in concentration and tiredness;  home environment − not having a quiet place to study, over−crowding, cold/damp conditions will all negatively affect educational achievement;  resources − a lack of educational books, materials, computer, software, private tutors etc. will all disadvantage a child in terms of their achievement;  preschool − not having attended preschool education because of a lack of money to pay the fees has been shown to disadvantage a child’s learning and achievement;  part−time jobs − poorer students often have to combine earning a wage with going to school and studying which is likely to affect how well they do;  financial position of parents − coming from a family that is not able to financially support children through further or higher education may cause students to limit their ambitions from an early age and so affect their school achievements;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well−developed way or cover several points in less detail. 2(d) Explain why schools use sanctions and rewards. 8 Possible answers:  socialisation − functionalists believe education passes on the shared norms and values of society through the hidden curriculum and the school’s system of sanctions and rewards and so helps students feel like they belong to society (social solidarity);  formal social control − formal control such as exclusions and isolations are used to ensure that students conform to the rules and regulations of school and then to wider society;  informal social control − facial expressions and words are used in school in order to subtly influence what students perceive as right and wrong behaviour − this can be through praise or disapproval;  deterrence − sanctions are used by schools in order to deter students from choosing the ‘wrong’ path and so help to maintain social order;  role modelling/imitation − by demonstrating the correct actions/attitudes and rewarding those students that do this schools are able to mould young people into the good citizens of the future e.g. manners;  social hierarchy − Marxists believe the sanctions and rewards used by schools are there to maintain the status quo; the social hierarchy is not challenged as students are encouraged to ‘know their place’ and thus ruling class power and privilege is maintained;  Marxism − preparation for the world of work − indoctrination happens through the hidden curriculum and is reinforced through sanctions and rewards e.g. students learn to be punctual through being punished if they are late − this is also needed in the world of work;  patriarchy − sanctions and rewards are used in schools to ensure the continuation of gender roles and to ensure that males maintain their privileges in society (feminism) e.g. gender role models in schools and teachers having higher expectations of boys in terms of careers;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 2(d) Band 3 [7−8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well−developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well−focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent does gender affect educational achievement? 15 Possible answers: Arguments for:  boys are prioritised for access to education over girls in some societies meaning their achievements will be higher;  subject choice − girls typically choose to study communication and arts–based subjects whereas boys choose technology and science − this will affect achievement in particular subjects;  classroom space − studies show that labs and some classrooms are dominated by boys meaning that male students tend to get more teacher attention − this is likely to affect achievement;  textbook representations − these can still be quite stereotypical when it comes to gender, meaning that boys and girls may feel that some subjects are not for them − this can lower aspirations in that subject;  societal changes − the attitude and motivation of girls has increased because there are more opportunities now for girls to do well and more successful women acting as role models;  positive discrimination − some schools use these schemes to encourage girls to aim higher − e.g. they may ensure that girls have priority over boys in lab equipment access;  girls are often better motivated, more studious and spend more time on coursework, they may occupy a ‘bedroom culture’ and therefore achieve more than boys;  teacher labelling − teachers may see boys as more troublesome and punish them more than girls leading to a self−fulfilling prophecy of underachievement;  laddish behaviour − boys may be more influenced by peer pressure and may be part of an anti−school subculture (Willis);  much schoolwork is based on writing and reading which does not typically suit male interests which tend to be much more active and outdoors;  fewer traditionally male jobs − this may make boys think there’s little point in them working hard to pass exams when there are few job opportunities;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  meritocracy − functionalists believe that education offers all students the same opportunities for success so if one student is less successful than another this must be down to how much work and effort has been put in;  material factors − how much money a student has for resources, private tuition, computer, software, revision resources etc. may have a much greater impact on educational achievement than their gender; 2(e)  home factors − whether a student’s home life is conducive to educational success may have more impact than the students gender on achievement e.g. quiet study space, parents valuing education, diet etc.;  ethnicity − some ethnic groups typically achieve a lot better than others in education and it may be this rather than gender that is most influential e.g. Archer’s research into why Chinese students do so well at school;  social class − research shows that social class seems to be the most important social factor to influence a student’s educational achievement, not their gender;  linguistic influences − the speech codes used by students and whether the majority language is the student’s first or second language may be far more influential on educational achievement than gender;  peer group − the peer group a student belongs to has a big influence on their attitude to school and may affect whether they join an anti−school or a pro−school subculture − this is not to do with gender;  too deterministic − to argue that gender affects student achievement is too deterministic − it depends on the individual involved;  intersection − it is more likely that a combination of different social factors work together to affect educational achievement e.g. it is untrue to say that all males under−perform in education, whereas this is far more likely for working class and ethnic minority males;  type of school attended − it may not be gender that affects educational achievement but instead the type of school attended e.g. results are typically higher in private and grammar schools than in state schools;  curriculum − in most countries now girls and boys study the same curriculum so gender cannot be particularly influential when it comes to achievement;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one−sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5−8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list−like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two−sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list−like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. 2(e) A one−sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9−12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well−developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13−15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well−developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two−sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 27

Different measurements of crime show the patterns of who commits crime and the types of crime committed. Sociologists look at the data to t…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘ostracism’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. being sent away; Two marks for clear definition, e.g. punishment that involves an individual being excluded from their community, can be physical or emotional. 3(b) Describe two examples of how criminal behaviour can be deterred. 4 Possible answers:  public shaming − this can be physically e.g. public executions or through the media − showing the negative consequences of criminality can deter others from committing it;  prison − harsh environments, loss of family connections and a lack of freedom aim to deter others from offending;  exile − sending offenders out of the community sends a clear message to others that criminal behaviour will not be tolerated;  fines − making offenders pay for the crimes they have committed ensures that there are consequences for criminal actions and so deters others;  community sentencing − offenders are often forced to wear a ‘uniform’ whilst completing community work making it quite humiliating and meaning other people are quickly discouraged;  electronic tagging − keeping offenders under surveillance and monitoring their movements limits freedom and deters both the offender and others from committing crimes;  informally − people do not want to let family and friends down and therefore the fear of doing so acts as a deterrent to criminal behaviour;  media representations – the media is often a norm referencing tool and so can show the negative consequences of crime, so deterring deviant behaviour, e.g. moral panics;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how the police enforce the law. 6 Possible answers:  power of arrest − the police have the legal power to arrest suspects and to question and investigate them;  community policing − police can work with communities, being a trusted part of the area, to keep neighbourhoods safe;  military policing − police can be an ‘invading force’, brought in when social order is necessary e.g. riots;  armed police − police can use weapons to ensure that the law is upheld and to deter criminal behaviour in the public;  police presence − the presence of the police on patrol is a visible sign of law and order and prevents much offending;  police targeting − the police will focus on particular social groups and areas as they believe this is where crime will happen e.g. inner city areas, young males etc.;  stop and search − the police have the power to stop and search people suspected of crimes − this prevents much crime from occurring;  Marxism − repressive state apparatus − the police act on behalf of the ruling class, ensuring that the lower social classes are ‘kept in their place’ and under control;  surveillance − the law can be enforced through surveillance operations e.g. CCTV, undercover operations, telephone monitoring, digital tracking devices etc.;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well−developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why victim surveys show different patterns of crime than 8 official crime statistics. Possible answers:  unreported crimes − victim surveys are able to reveal crimes that were never reported to the police in their data and so may show different patterns;  unrecorded crimes − victim surveys can reveal information about crimes that the police did not record/investigate and so look very different to the OCS;  asking victims − victims can be asked about the characteristics of offenders even when no prosecutions were brought, this can challenge patterns in the OCS e.g. that females and the middle classes commit more crime than is thought;  sample − whilst the OCS are national, victim surveys can focus on specific areas and neighbourhoods which may have different patterns of crime to the average e.g. Lea and Young − Left Realism − Islington survey (local victim surveys);  type of crime − victim surveys can concentrate on specific types of crimes in order to better understand the patterns of crime e.g. sexual crimes notoriously under−reported in the OCS (Feminism, Walklate);  memory − as victim surveys rely on the respondents’ memories, the patterns of crime shown may be faulty which is not the case with the OCS;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7−8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well−developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well−focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is age the most important factor in determining whether 15 an individual commits crime? Possible answers: Arguments for:  official crime statistics show that young people are most likely to commit crime and elderly people least likely;  status crimes − some crimes committed by young people are only criminal offences because of the offenders age e.g. underage alcohol consumption;  Matza − drift theory − he believes low level crime is a normal part of a young person’s life, a phase they will drift out of later;  postmodernism − crime is committed for thrills and excitement, ‘the buzz’, this is desired by many young people;  status frustration − Cohen − his research showed that many young people who had not achieved well at school and therefore did not have high status turned to crime as a way to achieve this;  marginalisation − Lea and Young’s research showed that young people were most likely to feel marginalised within society and relatively deprived, therefore they were most likely to turn to crime;  gang culture − gang membership is disproportionately young − as they commit a lot of crime then it is not surprising that crime is linked to youth;  elderly people − ageing populations − in societies where the population is ageing, rates of crime amongst the elderly are seen to be rising e.g. Japan;  lack of responsibilities − crimes may be more likely to be committed by young people because they do not have the same responsibilities as older people therefore the consequences are not as severe;  peer pressure − young people are often influenced to engage in criminal acts by their peer group (conformity);  labelling theory − Becker − the media and the police have an idea of the ‘typical delinquent’ (Cicourel) and this is used to construct moral panics and police targets for offending − these tend to be young people;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  intersection of social factors − many sociologists believe it is impossible to pinpoint one factor that is influential in the crime rate, multiple factors typically work together not just ‘age’ alone;  social class − regardless of the age of the offender, sociological research shows that it is those people from the lower social classes who are most likely to offend;  gender − official crime rates show that males are far more likely than females to offend, regardless of age;  ethnicity − minority ethnic groups are often portrayed as offenders, this is not about age;  lack of status − any person experiencing a lack of status is likely to turn to crime as a means to achieve it, not just particular age groups;  deprivation − Marxists believe that it is a lack of economic capital that is the main reason why instrumental crimes are committed, not age; 3(e)  inadequate socialisation − The New Right see poor socialisation in the family as the explanation for criminal behaviour amongst the underclass, this is not age specific;  individualism − many sociologists believe that crime is an individual’s choice and cannot be explained by social factors such as age (Postmodernism);  organised crime groups − these are often linked to drug dealing and to human trafficking and are typically controlled by adults − not youths which may contradict the idea of youth being the most prolific offenders;  white−collar crime − most crimes committed in or for the workplace are done by adults − the same is true for state crimes − nothing to do with youth and age, it’s about power and position (Marxism);  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one−sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5−8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list−like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two−sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list−like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one−sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9−12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well−developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two−sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. 3(e) Band 4 [13−15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well−developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two−sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 28

Many sociologists believe that audiences are affected by what they consume in the media. This can be media content, the language used and t…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘labelling’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. stereotyping OR giving a person a new identity; Two marks for clear definition, e.g. applying a term and an associated set of assumptions to an individual or a social group. 4(b) Describe two ways the media acts as an agent of socialisation. 4 Possible answers:  imitation − things shown in the media may be copied by the audience e.g. violence − they have learnt this behaviour from the media;  norm referencing − those events and viewpoints shown as normal in the media become seen as a ‘norm’ and therefore are typically accepted by the audience e.g. girls wearing make−up;  role modelling − some individuals in the media are represented as idols, people to be looked up to and admired;  gender roles − males and females learn what is accepted of them in their culture from the media e.g. feminist criticisms of the objectification of females;  identities − we learn who we are from the media, identifying with characters and their issues (uses and gratifications theory) e.g. sexuality, ethnicity, disability etc.;  media culture − because the media is so prevalent now, particularly with new media, it is thought by many researchers to be more influential than other agencies such as the family and education e.g. smart−phones, internet, social media;  body image − the media has been negatively linked to pressures on males and females to conform to particular ideal body types, represented through fashion and celebrity culture e.g. fat shaming, anorexia, trolling etc.;  capitalism − Marxists would say that the media socialises the audience to accept the inequalities of capitalism without challenge as this is the dominant ideology portrayed;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how the media affects its audience, according to the 6 hypodermic syringe model. Possible answers:  media has a direct and immediate effect on audiences;  audiences are passive and therefore soak up and believe media messages;  Bandura − bobo doll experiment − an example used by the hypodermic model to demonstrate the power of the media to impact upon and influence audiences;  everyone in the audience is affected in the same way by the media;  advertising is believed to be very influential and successful − adverts increase sales through direct media impact;  media can be used for the purpose of propaganda − e.g. Nazi Germany, North Korea, China;  increases in violence in society caused by representations of violence in the media e.g. imitation by children/video games etc.;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well−developed way or cover several points in less detail. 4(d) Explain why censorship of the media may be necessary. 8 Possible answers:  protection of the state − e.g. Official Secrets Act − this prevents the reporting of state secrets e.g. in times of war;  unfounded allegations against individuals − libel and slander laws prevent the media from making unfounded and damaging allegations;  prejudice and discrimination − censorship ensures the fair treatment and representation of ethnic groups and other minorities;  certification system for films and computer games − this protects users from unsuitable content and language e.g. PEGI/BBFC;  TV watershed − restricts the broadcasting of unsuitable material before 9pm to protect audiences from potentially harmful content;  obscenity laws − prevents the media showing images that could disturb or offend audiences;  self−censorship − many media companies will self−censor in order to ensure appropriate material is available for their audiences e.g. a film director may delete scenes of violence from a script;  to protect vulnerable groups from seeing disturbing/inappropriate media content e.g. children;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates maybe beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7−8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well−developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well−focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent are media representations of age stereotypical? 15 Possible answers: Arguments for:  children as innocent and vulnerable, in need of adult protection;  teenagers as rebellious, perhaps involved with petty crime or gangs;  representations of some youth sub−cultures have shown teenagers as resistant to adult values and authority, as folk devils in a moral panic e.g. mods and rockers;  teenagers as irresponsible e.g. the teenage girl who gets pregnant;  the generation gap − the concept that there is a huge difference in the norms, values and beliefs of different generations;  middle aged people as responsible and law−abiding figures e.g. positions of power and authority;  middle aged men going through a mid−life crisis e.g. dating younger women, living a party style life, driving fast cars etc.;  older people as physically weak, a burden and in need of help e.g. Grandpa Simpson;  older people as grumpy, moaning and difficult to get along with e.g. Victor Meldrew, Scrooge, Carl Fredrickson ‘Up’;  older people as frail and vulnerable, the typical victims of crime;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  children can now sometimes be seen as having greater wisdom than incapable or irresponsible adults;  children can be represented to be evil/bad e.g. documentaries about children who kill;  positive representations of capable teens with a force for good e.g. the Harry Potter franchise;  teenagers as ambassadors for social change, often through social media e.g. Greta Thunberg, Malala Yousafzai;  middle aged people shown struggling with life, families, employment etc. e.g. the film ‘I Daniel Blake’, high unemployment during the Covid−19 pandemic; increasing rates of divorce in many countries amongst middle aged couples etc.;  older people in more positive roles e.g. the film ‘Red’, the cartoon ‘Up’, Dumbledore in the Harry Potter stories, Gandalf in ‘Lord of the Rings’ etc.;  older people defying negative stereotypes and doing things associated with the young e.g. Helen Mirren dying her hair pink, Mick Jagger and the Rolling Stones, the pop group ‘The Zimmers’ etc.;  postmodernism − this theory suggests that the media will have less stereotypical representations due to increased audience power to choose, narrow−casting and the advent of new media;  any other reasonable response. 4(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one−sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5−8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list−like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two−sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list−like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one−sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9 − 12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well−developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two−sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13−15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well−developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two−sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 29

The family and individual roles within the family have changed in many different ways. Average family size is getting smaller and cohabitat…

Accepted Answer

Question Answer Marks 1(a) What is meant by the term ‘cohabitation’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. not being married. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. two people who are not married to each other, living together in an intimate relationship. 1(b) Describe two alternatives to the family. 4 Possible answers: • singlehood – one person households are increasing in many societies with the rising number of divorces and greater opportunities for women; • communes – a group of unrelated people who choose to live together and share living space, meals and at least some of their property – these may be based on religious, environmental or political beliefs; • friends as family – people have much greater choice today in their family lives and many sociologists believe families are perceived to be less permanent than they once were. This gap may have been filled by friends who are often relied upon more than family; • shared households – these can be temporary e.g. student accommodation or more permanent e.g. joint mortgage with friends or a shared tenancy; • Nayar tribe – large groups of women and children lived under one roof; brothers were responsible for bringing up the children with the biological father playing no part; • retirement/care/foster homes – these institutions can often perform many of the functions associated with the family despite their being no blood ties; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 1(c) Explain how family life can be affected by ethnicity. 6 Possible answers: • marriage – these can vary cross-culturally meaning different ethnic groups may have different experiences and expectations of marriage • cultural traditions – different ethnic groups have different cultural expectations that can affect family life e.g. whether divorce is allowed or whether lone parent families are seen as acceptable; • grandparents – in many cultures it is thought to be the responsibility of the family to care for elderly relatives, not the state – this can affect family life; • conjugal roles – in some ethnic groups it is still seen as the norm for segregated conjugal roles to be in place whereas in other cultures joint roles are the norm; • states – may try to influence the particular size or type of family that different ethnic groups have e.g. historic legislation in China; • religion – contraception is frowned upon in some religions and this can lead to larger families for some ethnic groups e.g. Roma gypsies; • Afro-Caribbean families – these may be more likely to be matrifocal than other ethnic groups which will affect the experiences of the children and family members; • South Asian families – these ethnic groups are more likely to have larger extended families with traditional gender roles, so affecting experiences of family life; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/ underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 1(d) Explain why the average family size is getting smaller in modern 8 industrial societies. Possible answers: • contraception – as this becomes more widely and freely available so women are able to control the number of children they have; • secularisation – the decline in religion means that there is less pressure on couples to marry and reproduce; • working women – women focusing on their careers may mean they wait until they are older to have children or decide not to have them at all; • education – many young people are now in education until early adulthood and therefore this delays starting a family; • feminism – feminists recognise that having children can often impact negatively upon a woman’s career, earning power and freedom – this may discourage women from having many or any children; • cost of living – this is rising globally and therefore partners have to consider carefully whether they can afford to have children; • rise of individualism – this brings with it ideologies of choice and freedom meaning that individuals believe it is up to them to decide how to live their life, they do not need to conform to traditional societal expectations; • globalisation – in the digital world we are all globally inter-connected and are therefore influenced by the possibilities of travel and by our understanding of family life in other parts of the world e.g. the rise in DINK families in China / Japan may influence others; • loss of functions – as the state increasingly takes over functions once performed by the family the need to have large families is lessened; • industrialisation – the fit thesis states that the move to an industrial society needed smaller families that could be geographically mobile; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts in greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 1(e) To what extent can living in a single parent family have a positive effect 15 on family life? Possible answers: Arguments for: • freedom and choice – postmodernists would see single parent families as a means for individuals to choose how they want to live their lives without regulation from traditional norms and values; • gender roles – single parent families will not see oppressive segregated roles in place which should lead to happier experiences of family life; • feminism –single parent families are a means to escape patriarchy and for women to have more power and control e.g. matrifocal families; • role models – single parents can be strong role models for their children showing how hard work and determination can lead to success; • economic capital – there are many very successful single parent families who are economically well off and who have strong aspirations for their children, ensuring they have access to vital social and cultural capital when growing up (Bourdieu); • gender neutrality – single parent families are often less stereotypical than other family units when it comes to socialisation and social control and this may help to reduce the damaging and limiting gender stereotypes found in society (Oakley); • dark side of the family – single parent families may be a means to escape domestic violence and abuse and can thus be a positive experience for family members; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • determinism – no one type of family can affect how family life is experienced, that depends upon the situation and the individuals involved; • stress and frustrations – living in a single parent family may be the result of divorce or separation which can lead to unhappiness and anger amongst both adults and children; • poverty – single parent families only have one wage and therefore are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation than other types of families which can negatively affect family life; • functionalism – they believe that single parent families are unable to perform the essential functions necessary in the family – only the nuclear family can do this; • New Right – they believe that single parent families are part of the underclass who do not socialise their children adequately. This, they say, leads to educational underachievement and criminality; • lack of father figure – as most single parent families are headed by females, many sociologists are concerned about the absence of a male role model and the negative impact that this may have on boys in particular growing up; • less parental time – single parent families may have less time to spend with their children due to the pressures of work and not having a partner to share tasks with – this may cause loneliness and unhappiness for children who spend a lot of time looked after by others; 1(e) • stigma – in some societies there is still a stigma surrounding single parent families meaning that parents and children are negatively labelled (Becker) which can be very damaging emotionally; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?

Question 30

Official crime statistics reveal a clear trend that most crimes are committed by males. Some sociologists claim it may be due to different …

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘material deprivation’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. being poor. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. being short of the material goods needed and wanted in society. 3(b) Describe two criminal sub-cultures. 4 Possible answers: • youth sub-cultures e.g. mods, rockers, punks, skinheads – taking drugs, violence, anti-social behaviour, etc.; • organised criminal sub-cultures – Sutherland – criminal behaviour is highly organised to maximise profits e.g. the Mafia; • gangs – a sub-culture based on a strict hierarchy that may be involved in drug dealing, human trafficking, violence, etc.; • retreatist sub-cultures – drug and/or alcohol addicts, often involved in crime to fund their addictions; • conflict sub-cultures – Cloward and Ohlin’s illegitimate opportunity structures and turf wars involving criminal sub-cultures; • underclass sub-cultures – Murray – children socialised into deviant norms and values form criminal sub-cultures; • criminal groups that operate online such as hacking groups often issue ransom threats against individuals, businesses or even the government e.g. the group Anonymous; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how formal agencies of social control deal with crime. 6 Possible answers: • police – suspected criminals are targeted and areas are monitored in order to deter and prevent crime; • police arrest – the police have the power of arrest and so can detain suspected criminals for investigation, thus dealing with crime; • courts – sentencing – in dealing with crime they decide upon innocence or guilt and then decide upon the appropriate sentence for the crime; • government – can alter existing laws and introduce new legislation in order to deal with a crime problem or a new form of crime; • surveillance – CCTV and police cameras may be used to monitor behaviour and to deter criminality; • punishment – negative sanctions can be imposed in order to ensure that crime is dealt with effectively e.g. prison, fines, corporal punishment; • prisons – incarceration – lock people away and remove their freedom and contact with family to prevent re-offending and so deal with crime; • prisons – crime within prisons can be dealt with through additional time added to sentences, solitary confinement, loss of privileges, etc.; • community sentencing – offenders have to give back to the community in some way (e.g. cleaning graffiti) and so learn from their mistakes – this deals with the problem of crime; • death penalty – the most severe crimes in some countries will be dealt with by the death penalty; • rehabilitation – counselling, addiction services, education and training may be offered through the criminal justice system to try and reduce offending and deal with the crime problem; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why white-collar crime often goes unreported. 8 Possible answers: • victims not aware – if the victims are not aware a crime has been committed then it will not be reported e.g. online fraud; • mutually beneficial – many white-collar crimes benefit the organisation as well as the individual and therefore are unlikely to be reported; • reputation – companies do not want to gain a bad reputation and therefore may choose to hide the crimes being committed in order to protect themselves from police scrutiny; • dealt with internally – white collar crimes are often dealt with internally by the organisation rather than reporting to the police; • normalisation – there are some areas of work where fraud and theft are normal e.g. tax evasion, fiddling expenses, and so such crimes will not be reported; • stereotypes – most white-collar criminals do not fit the stereotype of the ‘typical offender’ (Cicourel) and so are not suspected of committing crimes, making the reporting much less likely to occur; • power and status – those committing the crimes may be in powerful positions and therefore people may be reluctant to report them/the crime for fear of reprisals; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent does gender socialisation explain why females commit 15 less crime than males? Possible answers: Arguments for: • Oakley – differential gender socialisation – processes such as canalisation and manipulation teach girls to be caring, gentle and maternal and males to be aggressive and active – much more similar to criminality – therefore females commit less crime; • male norms and values learnt through socialisation – these are often closely associated with criminal behaviour (Miller) e.g, toughness, unemotional, aggressive – this is the result of socialisation and explains the lower levels of offending for females than males; • family ideology – feminism – girls are socialised to believe that their role is to be family/home centred and to involve children – this is not compatible with criminality and so explains their lower levels of offending; • bedroom culture – McRobbie – females spend a lot more time than males in the private sphere and therefore are far less likely to be involved in criminality as they are socialised to see the home as their domain, whereas males, socialised to spend more time in the public sphere, are likely to commit more crime; • functionalism – sex-role theory (Parsons) – by being socialised to perform the expressive role females are gentle and caring, the opposite of criminals – the reverse is true for males in the instrumental role and so explains their criminality; • masculinity – feminists claim crime rates may be higher for males because there is pressure on them to act in a hegemonic masculine way from socialisation in the family and peer group, being criminal is an example of this and so explains their higher levels of offending unlike females who are socialised into more compliant femininity; • cult of femininity – feminists believe girls are socialised into an ideology of beauty and appearance, often through the media – this feminine identity where you are judged on your looks not your actions is less likely to lead to crime; • parental role models – boys see father committing crimes so imitate that themselves, whereas this isn’t the case for girls; • peer group – female peer groups are typically more conformist whereas male peer groups may exert peer pressure and socialise boys to commit crime e.g. criminal sub-cultures, gangs, anti-schools sub-cultures, etc.; • media role models – many criminal male role models can be found in the media, where committing crime and the successful lifestyle it brings is glamorised and de-stigmatised – this may socialise boys to accept criminal norms and values whereas role models for girls are less likely to be deviant; • media representations – the media creates ideals of males and females in society and whilst males may be seen in dangerous, criminal roles this is rarely the case for females – so teaching both genders their acceptable behaviours in society; • any other reasonable response. 3(e) Arguments against: • biological – males have more testosterone and a bigger physical build than females and so are more naturally inclined to criminality; • social control – Heidensohn – females have less freedom when they are young than males and so have less opportunities to commit crime; • ladettes – Jackson – her research shows how females are starting to adopt more masculine norms and values as society becomes more equal and so are committing more crimes; • rising female crime rates – the statistics show that female crime is rising as women move into the workplace and are subjected to financial pressures which goes against gender socialisation theory; • chivalry thesis – Pollak – perhaps females have always committed more crime than was realised, but they have got away with it because they do not fit the stereotype of a criminal and can manipulate the system with their femininity; • opportunity – females are less likely to be at work then males and so have less opportunities to commit crime e.g. white-collar; • public spaces – in some cultures females are more controlled in public spaces than males and so do not have the freedom to commit crime that a male does have; • material deprivation – shoplifting is a crime closely linked to females which implies that financial reasons may explain why some females commit crime, regardless of their socialisation; • strain theory – Merton – females may suffer less strain to anomie than males as they are not seen as the conventional breadwinner and thus this, rather than gender socialisation, may explain their lower levels of offending; • status frustration – Cohen – this subcultural theory suggests young working-class males are frustrated by their low status in society and thus turn to crime – nothing to do with gender socialisation; • Murray – inadequate socialisation – this New Right theory does consider socialisation important in determining whether an individual commits crime – boys living in female headed single parent families without male role models may turn to crime due to a lack of discipline and moral guidance; • expressive crimes – are often associated with females and are thought to be fueled by emotions/pre-menstrual syndrome, etc., not linked to gender socialisation; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 31

Contemporary media includes both new and traditional media and is an agent of socialisation. The media affects values, behaviour and politi…

Accepted Answer

4(a) What is meant by the term ‘traditional media’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. newspapers. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. print and other older media such as radio and film, with little, if any, interactivity. 4(b) Describe two examples of media folk devils. 4 Possible answers: • youth sub-cultures e.g. the mods and the rockers – were represented by the media as causing trouble through acts of violence (Cohen); • knife crime – young males (often ethnic minority) are often portrayed by the media as living gang lifestyles and being a threat to society; • hoodies – the ‘hoody’ became a media symbol for ‘out of control youth’ resulting in the banning of youths wearing hoodies from some public places e.g. Bluewater shopping centre, UK (Fawbert); • bankers – in the credit crunch the ‘greedy’ bankers were portrayed in the media as the folk devils, responsible for international economic collapse and recession; • drug users – Young’s study of drug users showed how they were portrayed negatively as ‘delinquents’ and ‘losers’ and Critcher’s study showed rave culture being portrayed in a similar way; • ethnic minorities, particularly immigrants, may be blamed in the media for taking working class jobs, so creating conflict in society; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4(c) Explain how males are represented in contemporary media. 6 Possible answers: • hegemonic males – physical strength, power, dominance, sexual attractiveness, successful; • breadwinner – provider and protector of the family, head of the household; • meterosexuals – males who embrace masculine qualities whilst also caring about their style, appearance and looks; • New Men – embrace the traditionally feminine roles and tasks e.g. housework, childcare, emotional work, joint conjugal roles, etc.; • sports stars – males are still associated with the sporting world and prowess/skills; • househusbands – these may look after the house and children whilst the female breadwinner is at work or be single parents; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 4(d) Explain why political beliefs might be influenced by the media. 8 Possible answers: • ownership – state owned media typically presents stories in favour of the political party in power and negatively portrays the opposition; • propaganda – the media can be used to spread messages of propaganda, often linked to politics e.g. Hitler’s media manipulation during WW2; • Marxism – the media is said to support the ‘status quo’, representing mainstream politics favourably and more alternative/radical beliefs in a negative way (Glasgow University Media Group) – thus affecting political beliefs; • newspapers – these are typically heavily politically biased in their reporting of stories and representations of politics and so are likely to influence political beliefs of the audience; • opinion polls – media can influence political beliefs through their reporting of opinion polls; despite the small samples involved these are often represented as forecasting political results and so affect voting decisions; • new media – this is global and quickly disseminated, often with ‘from the scene’ uploads/citizen journalism and can therefore be a powerful influence on political beliefs e.g. war/civil unrest footage, BLM, inhumane treatment, etc.; • images – image manipulation and selective editing can portray a particular representation of a political leader and thus influence audience’s political beliefs e.g. the negative images seen of Donald Trump and Boris Johnson in several media outlets; • statistics – the media will typically back up points with statistics which adds weight to the argument and can therefore influence political beliefs; • hypodermic syringe model – this model of media effects sees the audience as passive, soaking up and believing what the media tells them – this could therefore influence political beliefs based on media political content; • cultural effects model – this ‘drip-drip’ theory suggests that if the media routinely and regularly contain a particular political view or narrative then this will become accepted as normal by the audience – thus influencing political beliefs; • any other reasonable response. 4(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates maybe beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 4(e) To what extent has new media created a digital divide? 15 Possible answers: Arguments for: • cost – cost of computers and the internet make them less affordable to the lower classes, meaning other classes make more use of new media; • global – poor people and those in developing countries have less access to new media than those in modern industrial societies; • range – those with more money and in certain locations have a greater range of new media products and services which maintains global inequalities; • social capital – those with access to new media are able to improve their social capital (Bourdieu) whereas those without it are not; • education – not all children have access to new media and therefore are disadvantaged when it comes to internet-based tasks/research/software; • usage – older people have not been brought up with new media and so find using it far more difficult than the younger generations of digital natives – this promotes inequalities; • employment – there are increasing inequalities in jobs requiring knowledge and understanding of new media and digital technology – younger people are more likely to acquire these jobs compared to the older ‘digital dinosaurs’; • social media – social media is a large part of new media and in today’s media culture it is central to everyday lives – not having apps or being able to take part in the ‘side hustles’ or know the latest online influencers decreases cultural capital and thus increases inequalities; • digital exclusion – this has intensified during the Covid-19 pandemic, both generationally and for disadvantaged social groups; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • training – many universities, colleges and charities provide courses in digital technology and new media for older people; • global initiatives – several of these exist to improve the economic and global digital divide e.g. the One Laptop per Child project aimed at children in developing countries; • government schemes – many governments and/or private companies have provided new media technology to disadvantaged social groups to try and bridge the digital divide; • falling costs – in modern industrial societies new media costs have fallen making new media content and technology increasingly accessible to all; • technology for all – research indicates that new media technology and devices have become the norm for everyone in modern industrial societies, regardless of economic status e.g. homeless youths were nearly all in possession of a smartphone and adept at using the technology on it; • digital fluency – just using new media doesn’t make someone adept at it so many countries are introducing ‘digital educators’ into schools to improve young people’s understanding of the technology – the digital divide may thus be a myth; • research indicates that older users are making good use of social media platforms and ‘Youtube’, suggesting there may not be a digital divide; 4(e) • there is a huge growth being seen in modern industrial societies of older people using digital technology regularly in their lives – the driving force here being communication; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 32

According to official crime statistics people from the lower social classes, such as working class and underclass, commit the most crime. S…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘masculinity’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. acting manly. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. attitudes and behaviour associated with being a man in a particular culture. 3(b) Describe two moral panics. 4 Possible answers: • Mods and Rockers – Cohen – minor disturbances caused by these sub- cultures were reported by the media in ways which turned them into folk devils; • youth knife crime – media reporting of this topic has exaggerated and sensationalised the issues, turning young males into objects of fear; • Stuart Hall – policing the crisis – inner city muggers – young black males became stereotyped as street criminals; • Islamic terrorists – Modood – Islamophobia in the West has led to the scapegoating and stereotyping of Asian communities; • Charles Murray – the underclass – his negative construction of the underclass as work-shy, welfare state dependant and feckless led to the creation of an associated moral panic; • football hooliganism – large scale violence at football matches across the globe led to a fear culture surrounding the supporters and the violent hooligan element; • immigrants – this issue has become a global moral panic as countries fear being swamped by illegal immigrants; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how a criminal master status can be created. 6 Possible answers: • being labelled negatively and repeatedly can lead to a stereotype forming of a person as a criminal that becomes the way they think of themselves and others think of them; • self-fulfilling prophecy – a person’s self-identity largely derives from the views of others and so negative labels can result in someone acting in that way and a master status forming; • public labelling – this can lead to rejection, loss of family and friends and social exclusion – this then encourages further deviance and so a master status is formed; • deviant career – an established master status of criminal may lead to the adoption of a deviant career as an individual joins a deviant group and the master status becomes embedded; • criminal master status may be formed by the media, family, peer group, community, workplace or a combination of these; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why some people from the lower social classes commit crime. 8 Possible answers: • Merton’s strain theory – society does not allow all individuals to achieve the goals through legitimate means leading to strain and anomie which can result in crime; • relative deprivation – those who compare themselves to others and feel they do not have as much may turn to crime to get the material goods they desire; • Cohen’s status frustration – this is typically associated with the lower social classes and with failure in education which prevents access to better jobs in society, so leading to crime; • Miller’s focal concerns – the working class are said to have distinct norms and values which encourage deviant behaviour, this results in crime; • Murray’s inadequate socialisation in the underclass – if the accepted norms and values of society are not internalised in the primary stage, crime can occur; • Marxism – The ruling class create laws and a criminal justice system to criminalise the actions of the working class as a way of having power and control over them; • Cloward and Ohlin’s illigitimate opportunity structure – in some lower class communities it is possible to climb the criminal career ladder and achieve status and wealth – often drug dealing; • consumerism – the constant pressure from the media and advertising to buy the latest products and technologies may lead people who cannot afford these goods to turn to crime; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent can youth crime and deviance be explained by sub- 15 cultures? Possible answers: Arguments for: • Cloward and Ohlin – illegitimate opportunity structure – in some communities criminal role models exist who can give young people access to a criminal sub-culture e.g., drug dealing; • Miller’s focal concerns – in the working class Miller claims norms and values are very similar to those needed to be successful as a criminal therefore young people socialised in this social class are more likely to be deviant; • gangs – highly organised youth sub-cultures such as gangs are based on criminal and deviant expectations and behaviours; • youth sub-cultures – examples such as the mods and rockers/punks/skinheads, etc. may be used to illustrate the links between youth sub-cultures and criminality/deviance e.g. skinhead sub-cultural violence as a reaction to unemployment; • protest movements – these are often dominated by young people with their own distinct norms and values e.g. BLM which can often be criminal/deviant; • Merton’s strain theory – not all young people can be successful in society therefore this leads to strain and anomie which may cause some young people to form a sub-culture and become criminal; • resistance – Marxism – sub-cultures have their own distinct norms and values which allow young people to resist the ‘status quo’ in a safe, collective environment which often results in criminal/deviant behaviour, e.g. drug-taking; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • Matza’s Drift theory – crime and deviance are seen to be a normal part of growing up for a young person, a phase in life that they grow out of – not a sub-culture; • Postmodernism – the thrills and excitement associated with committing crime may be the reasons why young people become deviant, not sub- cultures; • Labelling theory – being stereotyped as criminal may lead young people into a self-fulfilling prophecy where-by they adopt a deviant master status – not sub-cultures; • Cohen’s status frustration – failure in education may lead to some young people trying to gain their status in alternative, deviant ways e.g. gangs – not sub-cultures; • middle-class youth offending – middle class youth are not typically involved in sub-cultures yet can still be deviant – drug taking amongst middle class youth, for example, is as frequent as in the lower social classes; • Murray’s inadequate socialisation – a failure to be properly socialised into society’s norms and values may cause criminal behaviour in young people, not sub-cultures; 3(e) • consumer society – youth crime and deviance may be because of the consumer society that encourages the buying of material goods and technologies – not sub-cultures; • peer pressure – young people are highly influenced by their peer group and may often commit crimes simply to fit in – not sub-cultures; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 33

Education differs across the world and there are many different types of schools. Formal education is very different to informal education.…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘deferred gratification’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. wanting to get to University. Two marks for clear definition e.g. having long-term aims in life and being willing to postpone immediate rewards in order to achieve these. 2(b) Describe two examples of formal education. 4 Possible answers:  setting – formal education takes place in classrooms inside schools (institutions or schools created for the purpose of learning);  content – learners are taught set, agreed content from a syllabus;  roles – there are clearly defined roles of teachers and learners within formal education;  assessment – standardised testing is used to judge candidate performance e.g. national examinations;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how comprehensive schools function. 6 Possible answers:  non-selective – entry to a comprehensive school is open to all children of that secondary school age, regardless of ability;  local area – comprehensive schools were said to encourage social mixing as all children in a local area would be educated together resulting in a strong, cohesive community spirit;  free – comprehensive schools are paid for and run by the government meaning no one is prevented from attending because of financial hardship;  life chances – comprehensive schools offered all students the chance to succeed in their qualifications and so improve their life chances through upward social mobility – very few students leave comprehensive schools without any qualifications;  replaced tripartite system – introduced in 1960’s in the UK and replaced the ‘three school system’ based on ability and testing that was thought to label children unfairly aged 11;  meritocratic – comprehensive schools are thought to be a fairer system of schooling where all children are given equal opportunities and chances of success through studying the same subjects and curriculum, judging everyone on an equal footing via universal standards;  working class children – comprehensive schools are thought to particularly benefit working class children who are the least likely to be able to get into grammar schools due to material and cultural deprivation;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 2(d) Explain why IQ tests can be criticised. 8 Possible answers:  environment – it may be that the environment and home a child has been brought up in affects intelligence – thus high test results may indicate a more nurturing and academic background rather than higher intelligence per se;  narrow range of skills tested – how intelligence is defined in IQ tests is thought to be very narrow, other types of intelligence exist which the tests do not measure = reduced accuracy;  writers’ assumptions – IQ tests are written by members of the educated, higher social classes who inevitably build their own cultural assumptions and values into the questions – those from different cultures and those without cultural capital will thus find the test more challenging;  snapshot scores – IQ tests represent just one moment in time whereas intelligence develops through a person’s education or lifetime which means test results may not be accurate;  performance factors – how well a person does in an IQ test can be affected by anxiety/nerves and illness which leads to questions being asked about the validity of the results;  practice – the more someone takes IQ tests, the higher scores they tend to get – this suggests that the test does not necessarily measure intelligence, but how well practised in the style of questioning someone is;  success in later life – some people who get high IQ scores do not succeed in later life and vice versa, suggesting that there are flaws in how the tests measure human intelligence;  impact on student – receiving a low score from an IQ test may negatively impact upon a student’s self-esteem and may result in a self-fulfilling prophecy as they feel labelled as ‘unintelligent’;  material factors – if IQ tests are used as part of a selection process for schools e.g. private schools and grammar schools, then parents will pay for tutors to help their child understand and access the types of questions found on the IQ test. Maybe it therefore measures how much money a person has rather than intelligence?  any other reasonable response. 2(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent are home factors the main influence on educational 15 achievement? Possible answers: Arguments for:  material factors – the amount of money a student’s family has is a home factor that affects achievement e.g. being able to afford educational resources, having a quiet place to study etc.;  part-time work – children from poorer families are more likely to have a part-time job to help support them in their education, this may detract from the time they can spend on their studies and so lead to less educational success;  cultural deprivation – research indicates that a culture of fatalism and immediate gratification is found in working class homes and this negatively affects educational achievement (opposite in higher class homes where a culture of deferred gratification leads to better educational success);  parental role models – an absence of parental role models who have been successful in education may lead to imitation from the children and a cycle of underachievement;  parental values – children of parents who value education typically achieve higher than those who don’t, e.g. engagement with the school through parents evenings etc.;  cultural capital – Bourdieu – middle class families have more of this than the working class which advantages the higher social classes when it comes to educational success e.g. visits to museums, the theatre and galleries, having books at home etc.;  ethnicity – research shows that different ethnic groups perform differently at school which suggests that home factors and the value placed upon education has a part to play here e.g. Archer’s research on the success of Chinese children in school;  gendered socialisation and social control – research shows that girls and boys are brought up differently and that this home factor may affect educational achievement e.g. girls are encouraged to read independently and quietly, boys are not;  language codes – Bernstein – middle class children are more likely to use and be familiar with the elaborated code (the style of language and grammar used in schools and in exams) whereas working class children are more familiar with the restricted code – this home factor advantages higher class children;  language at home – if the language of school is not the language used at home, as is the case for many ethnic minority children, then it is harder to do well at school, to communicate effectively and to understand exam questions;  any other reasonable response. 2(e) Arguments against:  type of school – the type of school attended is thought to be a bigger influence on achievement than home factors, e.g. private schools typically get the best examination results;  teacher expectations – teachers make assumptions about a child’s ability and behaviour based on social factors and stereotypes and the labelling that can follow from this is likely to be more influential when it comes to educational achievement than home factors (Becker, Ball, Rosenthal and Jacobson etc.);  setting and streaming – this creates ‘winners and losers’ in education and can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy amongst students. This can be more influential on educational achievement than home factors;  pupil sub-cultures – the sub-culture a student finds themselves in, e.g. pro or anti-school, may have a huge effect on educational achievement - more so than home factors e.g. Willis ‘The Lads’;  gender – patriarchal ideologies and/or the culture of masculinity may be the main reason for gendered differences in education, not home factors;  ethnicity – ethnic minorities typically do less well than the ethnic majority when it comes to educational achievement, suggesting it maybe ethnicity rather than home factors that explains differences in educational achievement;  school factors – Rutter et al discovered from their research that it is how a school is organised that has the greatest influence over educational achievement, not home factors, e.g. teacher preparation, school culture of reward and success etc.;  any other reasonable response. 2(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well- developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 34

Girls and boys often study different subjects in schools. Educational achievement is not the same for everyone and many sociologists argue …

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘vocationalism’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. work experience. Two marks for clear definition e.g. vocational education prepares people for work or trains them for particular jobs or careers. 2(b) Describe two examples of equal opportunities in education. 4 Possible answers:  meritocracy – you will be setted/get results based on your effort and ability;  national curriculum – all students must follow the same curriculum for core subjects which is fair and equal;  free education – in many societies education is free to all, regardless of background e.g. state schools;  subject choice – all students in a school have the same choice of subjects, regardless of social factors;  social mobility – upward and downward mobility is a feature of life for everybody, based on educational success;  comprehensive schools – these were set up to offer equality of education to all students in a local area;  compensatory education – many schools use schemes such as bursaries and/or scholarships in order to ensure all social groups get equal opportunities for success (positive discrimination);  co-ed teaching/schools – offering girls and boys the same educational opportunities and curriculum;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how rewards are used by schools to socially control students. 6 Possible answers:  praise, stickers, badges – can all be used to encourage socially approved behaviours and values in schools;  socialisation – rewards in schools socialise students into their social expectations e.g. to use good manners will result in something positive happening/being said;  being positively labelled at school – encourages social conformity as the student desires further rewards (the halo effect);  manipulation – rewards allow schools to influence and control the thoughts and actions of children into believing the status quo/not rebelling (ideological control)  treat trips – students can be rewarded by being allowed to go on trips if they are good/achieve certain marks;  setting – if students work hard and follow the rules, they may be rewarded by moving up to a higher set or gaining better results;  assemblies – these may be used to publicly congratulate and reward students who have exceeded targets/been good citizens etc. thus producing a culture whereby rewards are seen to be desirable;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 2(d) Explain why girls often study different subjects to boys? 8 Possible answers:  feminism – girls are prepared for their traditional gender role as nurturer through subjects such as cooking and sewing, boys are prepared for their instrumental role through ‘harder’ subjects such as physics and economics;  gendered role models – in schools head teachers and senior staff are often male which may encourage boys to choose subjects to study that could be equated with leadership and authority in the future e.g. those subjects perceived as ‘academic’ or ‘difficult’ – the reverse may be seen for girls;  teacher expectations – teachers may have higher expectations of boys and encourage them to aim for a career through their subject choices whereas they may assume the future for girls is marriage and motherhood and thus be less inclined to encourage study of the more academic subjects;  careers advice – careers advice may be based on traditional gender stereotypes; thus girls may be pushed into different subjects than boys to match these careers;  home factors – parental pressure and attitudes are likely to affect the subjects that boys and girls choose to study at school;  gendered socialisation – Ann Oakley – processes such as canalisation and manipulation begin at home and may affect the aspirations and future goals of boys and girls, e.g. girls encouraged to be nurturing and feminine so choose health and social care, boys encouraged to be active and adventurous so choose PE;  cultural factors – the pupil’s cultural norms and values are likely to affect subject choice at school e.g. cultures where girls are seen as having careers and being independent are likely to socialise girls differently than those where marriage and motherhood is the norm;  single-sex schools – single-sex schools may offer a curriculum based upon the perceived needs of the gender they are catering for e.g. girls schools may be more likely to offer needlework, textiles and childcare and boys schools engineering, woodwork and economics;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 2(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent do linguistic factors have the most influence on a 15 student’s educational achievement? Possible answers: Arguments for:  social class – Bernstein’s restricted code – informal, everyday language with limited vocab spoken widely by the lower social classes that is discouraged in schools – this could negatively influence opportunities for working class educational achievement as this is not the language of education;  social class – Bernstein’s elaborated code – expresses complex and abstract ideas, a formal style of language used in schools by teachers and found in textbooks. This is the common language code of the higher classes and so advantages them when it comes to educational achievement as they are more familiar with these codes;  minority ethnic groups – may be taught in a language that is not their home language e.g. in international schools, which may lead to problems of understanding and communication thus explaining lower educational achievement;  bilingualism – research indicates that those students able to speak and use more than one recognised language may have an advantage in learning in schools and thus may do better;  ethnocentrism in language – some languages may be thought of by teachers as ungrammatical and incorrect e.g. patois/creole – thus teachers did not recognise when children speaking or using these languages were in fact expressing complex and abstract ideas (Labov);  immigration – students recently arrived in a country and with little understanding of the official language are likely to be disadvantaged in their opportunities to succeed at school due to an inability to access the curriculum;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  linguistic influences on educational achievement are thought to be significant but this does not mean that they have the most influence on a pupil’s educational achievement, a range of factors are likely to intersect with one another;  cultural influences – social class – the working class have been linked with cultural deprivation that encourages immediate rather than deferred gratification, an absence of successful well educated role models and a culture of fatalism – this may explain their educational lack of success;  cultural influences – ethnicity – different ethnicities value education differently and this is likely to influence a pupil’s educational achievement e.g. Archer’s research into why Chinese students do well in education;  cultural influences – gender – socialisation into gender roles starts in the primary stage and this is likely to influence aspirations – so, for example, girls may feel that qualifications are not needed if their primary role is to be a mother; 2(e)  material influences – social class – children living in poverty are less likely to succeed at school because of factors such as lack of supporting resources, having part-time jobs, lack of a quiet place to study, inadequate diet etc.;  material influences – ethnicity – some ethnic minority groups have high numbers of their members also in the working class so they are likely to suffer from material deprivation more than the majority ethnic group which may explain their lack of educational success;  material influences – gender – when a family has limited resources to spend on education, in some cultures a girl’s education may be seen as less important than that of boys;  schools and teachers – teacher labelling and the setting/streaming process may be the biggest influence on how well a pupil succeeds in education;  the peer group – peer pressure maybe the most important influence on educational achievement, especially for boys e.g. Willis ‘the lads’ (anti- school subcultures;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on commonsense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 2(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13 – 15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 35

Sociologists debate whether families are functional or dysfunctional. Many types of family exist, such as extended and symmetrical families…

Accepted Answer

Question Answer Marks 1(a) What is meant by the term ‘symmetrical family’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. everyone in the family helps out. Two marks for clear definition e.g. a family in which the conjugal roles have become more equal. 1(b) Describe two positive features of extended families. 4 Possible answers:  childcare – vertically extended families can help working parents out with free childcare;  emotional support/advice – elders can act as a source of support and advice to their children; this is thought to be particularly relevant for females in extended families;  financial assistance – extended families often help other family members out with financial aid, loans, monetary gifts etc.;  greater tolerance – living with different generations can promote a sense of understanding and acceptance between generations with often quite different norms and values;  elder care – children can be part of the care process for the elderly, helping to keep older people at home surrounded by loving family;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 1(c) Explain how children’s roles in the family have changed over time. 6 Possible answers:  legislation – children’s lives are now regulated by the law which has changed their roles in the family e.g. they must now go to school, laws about what age they can work etc – childhood is a period of innocence;  paid work – in the Middle Ages children were ‘mini adults’, working and being treated the same as adults; today their role in the family is now marked as a different life-stage to an adult (Aries);  social control – children are more controlled today by parents and other institutions than they were in the past e.g. surveillance, schools, apps, rules, trackers etc.;  children’s power – some law changes give children more power than before e.g. UN Rights of the Child – in relation to physical punishments, having a say in decisions that affect them (i.e. divorce and custody) and being listened to;  child-centred – children are now often the central focus of family life with day-to-day activities and meals being centred around them. They are also specialised consumers with a clearly defined status;  boomerang family – children may leave home to go to university or to live with a partner but then return to the parental home as adults at a later point because of contemporary difficulties with the increased cost of living;  pivot generation – in many western countries due to the ageing population, it is now commonplace for adult children to face a dual burden – having to care for both their young children and their parents;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanations, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 1(d) Explain why an individual’s experience of family life can be influenced by 8 gender. Possible answers:  socialisation – girls and boys may still be socialised differently e.g. Oakley’s research on manipulation and canalisation and the affect this has on gender identity;  social control – girls are likely to be more strictly socially controlled than boys e.g. through curfews and rules. They therefore often form a ‘bedroom subculture’ (McRobbie) with a focus on romance, pop music etc.;  gender roles – these are often still not equal and research indicates that whether a woman works or not she still undertakes the majority of domestic tasks e.g. childcare, housework, cooking etc.;  patriarchy – feminists say family life benefits men and mirrors the patriarchy of wider society e.g. dual burden/triple shift/domestic division of labour;  the anti-social family – Barrett and McIntosh – Marxist-feminists claim that nuclear families are unequal and that women suffer within them e.g. from stress, unhappiness, lack of power wages etc.;  lone parent families – this can be either male or female but in most cases it is women who typically head up single parent families and have the issues of lack of time, financial pressures, dual burden etc.;  polygamy – most polygamous relationships mean that the male is able to take several wives which will affect the female’s experiences of family life;  the dark side of family life – females maybe subjected to various forms of abuse within the family (Dobash and Dobash);  teen pregnancies – young, single mothers may be stigmatised by society and thus have a negative experience of family life;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 1(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 1(e) To what extent are families dysfunctional? 15 Possible answers: Arguments for:  the New Right – Murray – non-nuclear families are seen to be unable to deliver the core functions of the family and are thus dysfunctional e.g. not socialising children properly, lack of moral values, lack of discipline, no work ethic;  Leach and the nuclear family – he claimed that the nuclear family was dysfunctional for its members as it stifled individuality and put immense pressure on individuals to live up to the ideal of the unobtainable ‘cereal packet’ family – this makes it dysfunctional;  domestic violence – feminists criticise the family for the high levels of domestic abuse that occurs within it; this is dysfunctional for both the individual victim and society (Dobash and Dobash);  child abuse and neglect – many children do not find the family a source of love, comfort and support and instead experience many negative things that are dysfunctional for the future e.g. lack of love and nurture;  loss of functions – family functions are increasingly being taken over by other institutions meaning families are now dysfunctional as they do not serve a purpose e.g. childcare in nurseries;  divorce and remarriage – divorce rates today are high and as divorce is said to lead to times of financial worry, emotional uncertainty and anxiety for all involved it can create dysfunctional families;  single parent families – are criticised by the New Right for fecklessness, welfare dependency and a lack of discipline – producing children who are unable to function successfully in the world;  same sex families – functionalists would say these were dysfunctional as they do not embrace the natural gender roles whereby women perform the expressive and men the instrumental roles (Parsons);  dual burden/triple shift – feminists claim that families are dysfunctional for women as they have to perform the majority of the domestic and emotional work as well as take on paid employment (Oakley);  child-centredness – this concept is said to result in spoiled and pampered children with little sense of respect or resilience and is thus dysfunctional for society – ‘cotton-wool’ parenting;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  functionalists – argue that the family carry out several irreducible functions and are both essential and functional e.g. reproduction, socialisation, social control, care of children etc. (Parsons);  nuclear family – functionalists think this is the most functional of all family structures and as it remains today one of the most popular family forms so therefore the family must still be functional;  Leach and the extended family – as the extended family develops into many different forms e.g. beanpole, modified etc., it is becoming a common family type today and is said to be highly functional because of the close bonds that are formed within it alongside the levels of support offered to family members; 1(e)  Marxism – all families are functional for capitalist society and values as they contribute to the continuation of this system through socialisation, consumption and the creation of wage slaves;  feminism – all families are functional for men and patriarchy as they demand more of women than men and give women less status than men e.g. dual burden/triple shift (Oakley);  same-sex families – these families are said to be functional for individuals because of their breaking away from the restraining gender roles of the past, offering individuals more freedom and choice;  postmodernism – family diversity is the norm today and offers individuals the opportunity to live in the type of family that best suits their needs at any particular time without judgement or stigma;  individualism – no type of family is more or less dysfunctional than another, it depends on the way roles are acted out and negotiated within the family (Interactionism);  single parent families – feminists applaud these modern family types as they offer women the opportunity to escape male control and patriarchy and are thus highly functional for women (and often children);  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 1(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 36

There are many different types of schools. For example, comprehensive schools and private schools. However, all schools educate, socialise …

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘cultural capital’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. visiting museums and galleries. Two marks for clear definition e.g. the knowledge, language, attitudes and values that give those who have them an advantage in the educational system. 2(b) Describe two ways schools socially control students. 4 Possible answers:  formal social control – schools use formal school rules to control pupils and ensure they obey those in authority, e.g. uniform rules, behaviour policy, homework policy etc.;  informal social control – flexible measures of social control are frequently used within schools to control students e.g. a stern look or a smile in order to encourage conformity;  negative sanctions – punishments are used in schools to control pupils and deter them from further bad behaviour e.g. detentions, negative contact with home;  rewards (positive sanctions) – praise and other rewards such as positive contact home/treat trips are used to promote and encourage good behaviour by school pupils (social conformity);  peer group – peer groups can use peer pressure and role models in order to control the behaviour and attitudes of others in the peer group who are keen to belong e.g. pro and anti-school subcultures;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how private schools benefit students from higher social classes. 6 Possible answers:  Marxism – private schools typically gain better examination results and thus ensure the maintenance of elite culture as it is students from the higher social classes who typically attend private school;  myth of meritocracy – the education system is not based on equality of opportunity and favours the higher classes who will achieve more in private education than those educated by the state – Marxism;  smaller class sizes – private schools can therefore devote more specialist teacher attention to pupils and so achieve better examination results;  better resources – private schools are paid for by parents and thus have more money to spend per child, resulting in better resources and facilities – all of which promotes better learning, outcomes and motivation for the students (who have come from the social classes);  old boys network – the social capital gained in the private school system benefits those pupils who have attended such schools as they have contacts that can help them later with finding a job, gaining quality work experience etc.;  parental pressure – if parents are paying for their child’s education, then they expect to get their money’s worth and so will pressure and be in close contact with the school in order to achieve this – as well as pressuring their child to do well – this ultimately benefits the children who are typically from the higher social classes;  access to elite universities – private school students dominate the intake at elite universities which then leads to greater opportunities and success in employment e.g. government members are often dominated by those with an elite education;  admissions policy – private schools often take only the best students academically so there is a culture of high attainment which typically leads to academic success and so benefits those who attend;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 2(d) Explain why the comprehensive system of education was introduced. 8 Possible answers:  meritocracy – comprehensive schools were introduced originally in the 1960’s to embrace the cultural change towards equality of opportunity for all through all pupils studying the same subjects in the same school (functionalism);  replace the tripartite system – comprehensive schools replaced the three- tier system of education that was thought to be unfair and divisive for children;  qualifications – comprehensive schools wanted to try to ensure that fewer pupils left school without any qualifications so they could better compete in society for jobs and success (tackling inequalities);  working-class underachievement – comprehensive schools wanted to tackle the issue of working-class children’s under-achievement at school – they were the least likely to gain a place at a grammar school and so were often hindered in terms of being able to achieve academically hence comprehensives were introduced;  tolerance and acceptance – comprehensive schools wanted to strengthen community bonds and bring together children from a diverse range of backgrounds in order to embrace multiculturalism, special needs and social class differences within a community;  no label of failure – the comprehensive system did not have an entry test and therefore no students were labelled as ‘failures’ before their secondary education had even begun (Interactionism);  social mobility – comprehensive schools believed that students should be judged on outcomes (universal standards such as examination results) not on social characteristics, and thus offered all pupils the chance to be socially mobile through educational success;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 2(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent does the culture of masculinity affect educational 15 experience? Possible answers: Arguments for:  hegemonic masculinity (Connell) – there is a lot of pressure on boys to be perceived by their peers as masculine and this can lead to the formation of anti-school sub-cultures where such norms are accepted and admired e.g. providing status for the boys (Cohen’s status frustration);  Willis ‘The Lads’ – his study showed the ‘lads’ came to school not to learn (perceived as feminine) but to have a laugh and mess about with their friends (‘do masculinity’) in an anti-school sub-culture;  peer pressure – boys are afraid of negative labels e.g. sissy, and thus will act more masculine with their peers in school in order to conform to the stereotypical notion of ‘being male’ and so avoid any negative labelling;  teacher labelling – teachers are likely to stereotype boys as being more troublesome (a perceived feature of masculinity) than girls in the classroom and this may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy in which boys under-achieve and live up to their label;  gendered subject choice – a culture of masculinity with the associated male and female traditional stereotypes may explain why girls and boys typically choose different options at school e.g. boys choose masculine subjects such as PE, Design and ICT;  toxic masculinity – schools have been in the spotlight recently for not tackling so called ‘rape culture’ (Everyone’s Invited) which suggests that a culture of masculinity is still prevalent and influential in schools;  male power – schools are seen by feminists as patriarchal institutions that benefit boys more than girls and thus the higher status given to masculinity is reflected in a culture where boys succeed and have higher status and visibility than girls e.g. boys dominate the playground, they dominate teacher time and attention in class etc.;  role models – a school dominated by males in high positions (e.g. head- teacher), socialises students to believe that this is the norm and typical also of wider society – a culture of masculinity like this will therefore encourage boys to achieve more than girls so they too can achieve these positions of power;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  too deterministic – a culture of masculinity may be one factor to explain gendered educational experience but it is not the only one (intersectionality);  negotiating masculinity – masculinity no longer has one singular meaning and is interpreted differently by different males therefore there is no longer just one culture of masculinity (e.g. we now have males who are meterosexual, new man, homosexual etc);  does the culture of masculinity exist? – girls are now achieving more than boys in education almost universally so this has led some sociologists to question whether a culture of masculinity actually exists in education any longer;  female role models – schools and wider society are full of positive role models for females and this culture is likely today to be far more influential on educational experience (for females) than a culture of masculinity; 2(e)  feminisation of education – sociologists claim that education has been reconstructed to value feminine qualities such as conformity, listening, writing and reading – this contradicts the idea of a culture of masculinity being present in schools;  functionalism and meritocracy – functionalists say schools are equal institutions that offer equal opportunities for all therefore the culture of masculinity cannot be relevant for explaining differences in educational experience, instead any differences are down to individual effort and ability;  socialisation at home – girls and boys arrive at school already aware of their gender roles and expectations through processes such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley) and this is therefore likely to impact upon experiences at school;  feminism – this social movement has raised the aspirations and expectations of females and therefore it is unlikely that a culture of masculinity either still exists or is influential in education;  material deprivation – this may be more influential on experiences than a culture of masculinity e.g. where families can only afford to educate sons not daughters;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on commonsense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 2(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 37

Victim surveys show that there is a dark figure of female crime. There are many different agencies of social control which can be formal or…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘victim surveys’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. asking about crime. Two marks for clear definition e.g. research that asks people what crimes they have been victims of. 3(b) Describe two agencies of informal social control. 4 Possible answers:  family – primary socialisation teaches children society’s acceptable norms and values through processes such as imitation;  media – the media offers role models and constant messages about how to behave and reminders of rewards and sanctions through various examples of good and bad;  peer group/peers – powerful agent of control because people feel the need to belong to groups and thus the threat of isolation/rejection is powerful;  education/school – the hidden curriculum is used to ensure students learn to obey the rules and conform to expectations;  religion – holy books and religious teaching ensures people conform to religious beliefs and rules for life;  workplace – rules and regulations exist alongside other norms that people need to learn in order to feel part of and be accepted into a workplace;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how youth sub-cultures can be linked to crime. 6 Possible answers:  Merton’s strain theory – a possible reaction to status frustration is the development of new goals. If a group share these feelings then a new deviant youth sub-culture may emerge with criminal norms and values e.g. drug dealing;  anti-school sub-cultures – studies of teenage boys in school labelled as ‘failures’ (e.g. Cohen/Willis) showed how this treatment would often lead to them resisting school authority and behaving in a criminal manner e.g. joining a gang, normalised violence;  Cloward and Ohlin – criminal sub-culture – in some working class communities there are successful criminal role models and an informal career structure for aspiring young criminals hence some young males chose crime as their lifestyle;  Cloward and Ohlin – conflict sub-culture – when both legal and criminal ways of achieving success were blocked, young males may turn to violence and gangs as a sign of resistance;  Cloward and Ohlin – retreatist sub-culture – young people who feel that they cannot gain status or be successful may turn to drugs or alcohol as an escape, finding a group of similarly disaffected young people and so adopt criminal norms and values;  postmodernism – thrills and excitement – young people are in search of the next ‘buzz’ and so may turn to criminal youth sub-cultures in order to achieve this e.g. joyriding, graffiti;  Matza drift theory – Matza says that young people drift into criminal sub- cultures as they have few responsibilities in life and so can fulfil their ‘subterranean values’ through crime;  youth sub-cultures – many of these groups have been linked with criminal behaviour e.g. mods and the rockers = assaults and violence, skinheads = racism, punks = anti-social behaviour, ravers/hippies = drug use etc.;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanations, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why Marxists argue some individuals commit crime. 8 Possible answers:  material deprivation – being short of money and feeling disadvantaged is thought by Marxists to explain much instrumental crime e.g. robbery, burglary;  marginalisation – lower class people do not have organisations or representatives to protect their interests, so they have no outlet for their feelings of anger other than through violence and rioting;  alienation – capitalism’s focus on economic assets and material success dehumanises people and means they will turn to crime in order to get what they want;  consumer society – we are defined by what we consume, status symbols are everything and thus if people cannot legitimately afford such items they will turn to crime to get them instead;  lack of equality in society – if society is seen as unjust and unfair then the lower classes and the most deprived in society will turn to crime out of frustration and anger e.g. BLM rioting/urban riots etc.;  resistance to capitalism – the CCCS claimed that crime was the result of young people refusing to accept capitalist ideologies e.g. drug taking and the Punks, violence and the Skinheads etc.;  capitalism is criminogenic – capitalism encourages criminal behaviour because of its focus on competition, no matter the consequences for other people – any way to succeed becomes acceptable in such a system therefore crime occurs;  selective law enforcement – the law treats different social classes differently meaning that the lower classes are criminalised by the agents of social control e.g. the police, and thus are more likely to be caught committing crimes;  law creation – the law is made by the elite in order to serve their interests and benefit them – this means that lower social classes seem to commit more crime because more focus is on street crimes than, say, corporate, state or white-collar crimes;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 3(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is there a dark figure of female crime? 15 Possible answers: Arguments for:  Pollak – his work suggested that females were more manipulative and devious than males and so were better able to hide their criminality hence the low figures in the OCS;  Pollak – chivalry – this thesis suggests that females get away with crime because men find it impossible to equate a hardened criminal with the stereotype of a gentle, caring female – thus there is a dark figure of female crime because they receive more lenient treatment from law enforcement agencies than a male would;  self-report studies – e.g. Campbell – these show that rates of female offending are far higher than official figures suggest, meaning female crime is hidden in the dark figure;  white-collar crime – this type of crime is notoriously under-reported and as women dominate office work it is likely that they are getting away with much white-collar crime i.e. a dark figure of female crime;  police labelling – as females do not fit Cicourel’s picture of the ‘typical delinquent’ they are unlikely to be targeted by the police and thus are more likely to get away with committing crime = a dark figure (Interactionism);  victimless crime – females are said to play a major role in the sex industry (as prostitutes and escorts) and the drugs industry (as mules);  because there are no traditional victims of these crimes i.e. people are paying for the service, they are unlikely to be reported and thus female crime remains hidden in the ‘dark figure’;  domestic abuse – crimes against women in the home form a huge dark figure and thus are hidden as they are notoriously under-reported and under-recorded by the police (Dobash and Dobash);  media representations – the media still portray traditional stereotypes of males and females and therefore women are unlikely to be represented as a criminal, more so as a victim. This agenda setting affects public perception of who the criminals are resulting in a dark figure of female crime as females are just not suspected to be or thought of as criminal;  domestic setting – women are still located primarily in the private sphere and so, whether criminals or victims, their actions and experiences are more hidden than those in the public sphere (which is still dominated by males);  any other reasonable response. 3(e) Arguments against:  male criminals – functionalists would believe the picture of crime in the OCS that clearly shows that males commit the vast majority of crimes in society i.e. female crime is not a dark figure;  female dominated crimes – crimes such as prostitution and shoplifting are shown to be dominated by females according to the OCS, these female crimes are therefore not a dark figure;  increasing female criminality – feminism – there has been a reported increase in crimes committed by females and researchers talk about the ‘girl gang’ phenomenon – these feature highly in media reports thus female crime is no longer a dark figure;  double deviance – some feminists suggest that when females do commit criminal acts they are demonised in the media as ‘monsters’ and treated more severely than a male would be by the criminal justice system – their crimes are not a dark figure;  gendered socialisation – Oakley – female crime is not hidden, females just commit less of it as they are still socialised to be nurturing and caring rather than aggressive and competitive;  differential social control – Heidensohn – females are under greater levels of social control than males and therefore it is not surprising that they commit less crime; their crimes are not hidden, they just commit less of them;  hidden figure of crime – sociologists would say there is a huge dark figure of crime for both males and females, female crime is no more hidden than male e.g. white-collar/corporate crime;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on commonsense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. 3(e) A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 38

There are inequalities in patterns of educational achievement. Some students choose to join anti-school sub-cultures. Sociologists debate w…

Accepted Answer

2(a) What is meant by the term ‘setting’? 2 One mark for a partial definition e.g. higher ability teaching. Two marks for a clear definition e.g. when children are taught in classes of similar ability for a particular subject. 2(b) Describe two examples of inequality in patterns of educational 4 achievement. Possible answers: • gender – in some cultures boys’ education is prioritised over girls’, meaning boys achieve more; • gender – in many societies there is a gendered curriculum, meaning girls and boys may achieve success in very different subjects e.g. boys in woodwork, girls in textiles; • gender – in many MISs girls are now achieving better than boys in all levels of education e.g. STEM initiatives; • ethnicity – in most countries, ethnic minority students tend to do less well than the average for the country e.g. institutional racism; • ethnicity – black students in countries such as USA and UK do not tend to do well in education e.g. teacher labelling; • ethnicity – traveller and Roma children do not tend to do well in education e.g. ethnocentric curriculum; • ethnicity – cultures where education is highly valued tend to do well in education e.g. Chinese and Indian students (Archer); • social class – students from the lower social classes tend to do less well than those from the higher social classes e.g. material deprivation; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 2(c) Explain how a lack of cultural capital disadvantages some students. 6 Possible answers: • values and attitudes – students brought up in a home environment where education is not valued and is seen as unimportant are disadvantaged in school; • fatalism – students who believe they cannot achieve educational success and/or social mobility are disadvantaged in education as they do not possess belief in meritocracy and social mobility; • immediate gratification – students who are socialised to want to leave education as soon as possible for the money that the workplace can bring are disadvantaged with future life chances as they will not achieve higher level qualifications; • restricted code – speaking in this code at home rather than the elaborated code used at school will disadvantage students in education who find the middle-class world of education and assessment more difficult to navigate and be successful in; • parents – students with parents who do not have regular contact with school and who do not push and expect them to do well are disadvantaged in education as there are lowered parental expectations; • home environment – students brought up with no access to literature, high cultural events, museum and art gallery visits etc are disadvantaged in education where these features are commonly discussed and, indeed, are often part of the curriculum; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 2(d) Explain why some students join anti-school sub-cultures. 8 Possible answers: • sense of failure – failing academically in school may lead to some students rebelling and joining an anti-school sub-culture; • status frustration – unable to gain status legitimately through academic success, some students turn to an anti-school sub-culture to gain status instead (Cohen); • culture of masculinity – schools and education can be seen as feminine and thus some male students may turn to anti-school sub-cultures in order to ‘play up’ their masculinity; • teacher labelling – teachers have an image of an ‘ideal pupil’ and evidence suggests that students who do not match this may be placed into lower sets and streams – the anti-school sub-culture may thus be a way of dealing with this; • improved sense of self-esteem – the sense of belonging from an anti- school sub-culture may help students cope with the pressures and stresses of school; • racism – schools may be perceived as racist and ethnocentric by some ethnic minority students and thus they may turn to an anti-school sub- culture in order to resist this racism; • Willis ‘the lads’ – these working class boys knew that academic qualifications were not needed for the manual work they would go into after leaving school and therefore saw school as a place to ‘have a laff’ by joining an anti-school sub-culture; • Sewell – the black boys in his study joined anti-school sub-cultures to assert their masculinity and to resist the racism and discrimination they felt in schools and wider society e.g. ethnocentric curriculum; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 2(e) To what extent does the type of school a student attends affect their 15 educational achievement? Possible answers: FOR: • Rutter – attending a ‘good school’ is the key factor to determine educational achievement and is far more important than home or community or material or cultural factors; • private schools – paid for by parents, examination results are typically excellent – small class sizes, well resourced, prestigious. An academic culture prevails; • Marxism – private education maintains the ruling class elitism and privilege and reproduces the social inequalities e.g. those from the top private schools dominate elite universities e.g. Oxbridge and this is directly linked to educational achievement; • comprehensive schools – mixed ability, not all students will do well, perhaps due to setting and streaming, often under-funded, diverse mix of students and often less focus on academic education; • single-sex schools – educational achievement is typically higher in a single-sex school than in a co-ed when the distractions of the opposite sex are removed; • selective schools – entrance examinations ensure the brightest students are selected – students in these schools typically achieve highly e.g. grammar schools e.g. pro-school subcultures; • faith schools – education and the curriculum may be more religious in focus, examination results are typically high with supportive parents and high expectations; • scholarships – these are available to the brightest students from all backgrounds, allowing them to attend private schools where they achieve highly – showing it is the school, rather than other factors that determine educational achievement; • any other reasonable response. AGAINST • functionalism – meritocracy – the type of school attended is irrelevant. Educational achievement is determined by a person’ hard work and effort; • teacher labelling – educational achievement is not determined by the type of school but by the attitude and treatment of students by the teachers e.g. setting and streaming, Becker’s ‘ideal pupil’; • material factors – educational achievement is not determined by the type of school but by the amount of money the parents have e.g. students from the higher social classes achieve better in all types of schools e.g. private tuition, internet, quiet study space; • cultural factors – educational achievement is not determined by the type of school but by home and cultural factors such as parental aspirations, the value placed on education etc.; • linguistic factors – educational achievement is not determined by the type of school but by the language spoken e.g. bilingual children typically achieve well in all schools, students using restricted code do not typically do well and students whose home language differs from that of the schools do not tend to do well; 2(e) • ethnicity – educational achievement may be determined more by institutional racism and the ethnocentric curriculum than by the type of school attended e.g. Sewell; • gender – girls are said to be more studious than boys, encouraged through socialisation and stricter social control and therefore it is this, rather than the type of school, that determines educational achievement; • gender – in some societies boys’ education is prioritised over girls’, therefore the type of school attended is irrelevant for educational success; • peer groups – it may be the type of sub-culture a student is involved in (pro or anti-school, for example) that determines educational achievement, not the type of school attended; • intelligence – educational achievement is determined by intelligence i.e. bright students do well in any type of school; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. 2(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 39

Crime and deviance are relative. Functionalists and Marxists disagree in their views on crime. Crime statistics can be affected by a range …

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘exile’? 2 One mark for a partial definition e.g. banished. Two marks for a clear definition e.g. punishment involving the offender having to leave their home and community. 3(b) Describe two ways crime and deviance are relative. 4 Possible answers: • time/era – definitions of crime and deviance change over time e.g. laws on smoking in public places/attitudes to homosexuality; • culture – the norms and values of the culture determine whether something is considered deviant or not e.g. child marriages; • religion – religious beliefs may determine whether an act is seen as criminal/deviant e.g. Catholics see divorce as a sin, atheists do not; • society/country – laws are different in different societies e.g. alcohol cannot be consumed until age 21 in America, 18 in the UK and 15 in Mali; • situation – e.g. knocking someone unconscious in the street would be seen as deviant, doing the same in the boxing ring would be praised; • role-based – the role a person plays may determine whether an act is criminal or not e.g. a police officer using physical force is acceptable, attacking a stranger on the street is a criminal offence; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how functionalists view crime. 6 Possible answers: • Durkheim – crime in society is inevitable and beneficial in terms of reinforcing the dominant norms and values, too much crime, however, is dysfunctional; • shared values – society agrees on what is wrong and right, as clarified by the law – punishing people who deviate reminds people of what is acceptable and where the moral boundaries lie; • degradation ceremonies – punishing criminals acts as a deterrent to others and thus reduces levels of criminality e.g. public hangings, media trials etc.; • Merton’s strain theory – people are encouraged to achieve the American Dream in order to be successful but not everyone can achieve it legally therefore some people turn to crime; • Cohen’s status frustration – young, working-class males face social inequalities, do poorly at school and so may turn to crime as they cannot achieve their status through legitimate means; • socialisation and social control – functionalists see these as key to preventing crime, thus individuals who are poorly socialised or not properly socially controlled are likely to turn to crime; • Murray and the New Right – crime is rife in the underclass due to the decline of the nuclear family, decline in marriage, rise in single parent families and the lack of a father figure; • Any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why some young people commit crime. 8 Possible answers: • status offences – crimes may have been committed that would not be categorised as such were the person older i.e. a part of normal life e.g. consumption of alcohol, sexual activity; • functionalism – normal period of adolescence in transition – youth crime is typically non-violent and not repeated and is just a normal part of growing up as young people find their place in society and their identity; • criminal role models – family members, friends or the community may influence young people to become criminal, crime is normalised and young people are more susceptible to influence; • peer pressure – young people feel pressure to be accepted by their peer group and may engage in criminal activity to do so e.g. gangs; • parenting styles – socialisation and social control – over strict or over lenient parenting is often associated with juvenile delinquency; • Cohen’s status frustration – those young people who struggle to acquire status legally in society may turn to crime in order to achieve it instead e.g. working class boys; • Marxism – poverty – young people living in poverty are more likely to commit crime as a ‘quick fix’ in order to deal with factors such as relative deprivation; • resistance to racism – some ethnic minority young people may engage in criminal behaviour to resist the racism they perceive in society e.g. BLM rioting; • culture of masculinity – young males may turn to criminal behaviour to prove their masculinity; • consumer culture – there is much pressure on young people to have the latest fashions and status symbols therefore many turn to crime in order to fund this lifestyle; • postmodernism – thrills and excitement – crime is seen to be fun therefore young people engage in it in order to have a good time e.g. edgework (Katz, Lyng); • Matza’s drift theory – young people drift into crime and deviance as a normal part of growing up and testing the boundaries, giving up crime as they get older and take on more responsibilities; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent are crime statistics most affected by police targeting? 15 Possible answers: FOR: • males – males are more likely to be perceived as criminals than females therefore are targeted more by the police. This may affect the crime statistics as then more males will be arrested/charged than females; • chivalry factor – Pollak – the police are male dominated and may find it hard to believe that females can be criminal thus do not target them – this can lead to an under-representation of female criminals in crime statistics; • working class – the police typically target certain areas, usually dominated by the working class e.g. inner city/deprived areas, in the belief that there will be more crime there – the working class are thus more likely to be arrested/charged, so distorting the crime statistics; • white-collar crime – middle/upper class criminals are rarely targeted by the police and thus Marxists believe there is a huge dark figure of white- collar crime being committed that is not shown in the crime statistics; • ethnicity – evidence shows that some ethnic minorities are far more likely to be stopped and searched by the police than other ethnic groups – this will lead to higher arrest rates and charges for these groups and so will distort the crime statistics (institutional racism); • Islamophobia – since 9/11 research shows that Muslims have been targeted by the police due to fears of terrorism and radicalisation, this targeting will then affect the crime statistics; • age – young people are often targeted by the police as they fit the criminal stereotype, meaning that much adult crime goes unnoticed and so distorts the crime statistics; • labelling theory – Becker believes that through police targeting those under suspicion will live up to their criminal label and commit more crime than they would have done otherwise – self-fulfilling prophecy thus police targeting directly affects crime statistics; • Cicourel – his work shows there is a ‘typical delinquent’ stereotype that is used by the formal agents to target certain people – this means others are being ignored and therefore this affects the crime statistics; • resistance – many groups targeted by the police get angry and resist arrest/being searched thus their deviance amplifies and they appear more deviant then would have been the case without the police targeting – a distorted picture of crime appears in crime statistics; • any other reasonable response. AGAINST: • functionalism – the official picture of crime is accurate – the police target those who commit most crime in society so police targeting does not affect crime statistics; • non-reporting of crime – there is a large hidden figure of crime (e.g. fear of reprisal/humiliation etc) which cannot be represented in the crime statistics, making the patterns and trends inaccurate. This therefore affects the crime statistics more than police targeting; • ethnicity – the police target ethnic minorities because they do commit the most crime as proven by the official crime statistics (due to factors such as poverty, racism etc); 3(e) • age – young people do commit the most crime in society therefore it is accurate and fair that the police should target them (thrills, peer pressure etc.); • gender – males are rightly targeted by the police as they commit the most crime due to the culture of masculinity and gendered socialisation; • social class – most crime, particularly that which the public is afraid of, is committed by the working class, often therefore the police are right to target them; • moral panics – it is not the police targeting that affects crime statistics but instead media representations of crime, particularly through moral panics and the creation of folk devils e.g. mods and rockers, the drug-takers etc.; • police as repressive state apparatus – Marxists believe that the police are simply a tool of the ruling elite and therefore their targeting of certain social groups is at the government’s bequest in order to maintain the ‘status quo’ – government not police targeting; • new technologies – it may not be police targeting that affects the crime statistics but whether the crime committed can be traced and investigated effectively; • social construction of crime statistics – whether crime is reported and/or recorded has the biggest effect on crime statistics, not police targeting; • feminism – women as victims – feminists would say that males need to be targeted more by the police as they are currently getting away with crimes committed against women – the crime statistics on this are hugely distorted due to the dark figure, not due to police targeting; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 3(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 40

Official crime statistics show how much crime has been committed in society. There are different explanations for why some social groups co…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘rehabilitation’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. counselling services/addiction programmes/re–socialisation. Two marks for clear definition e.g. work or education to help offenders realise they were wrong to commit a crime/when offenders are encouraged to change their norms and values in order to conform to society’s expectations. 3(b) Describe two limitations of official crime statistics. 4 Possible answers: • dark figure of crime – sociological research demonstrates that there is a large figure of crime that is not officially known about and so does not feature in the OCS making this measure incomplete; • unreported crime – crimes not reported to the police will not feature in the OCS (e.g. a private affair, too embarrassed, afraid of repercussions etc.) making them inaccurate; • unrecorded crime – the police do not record all crimes reported to them and so these crimes do not appear in the OCS e.g. crime categorised as a family matter making them inaccurate; • victimless crimes – crimes without an obvious victim will not feature in the OCS e.g. drug taking, status crimes making them inaccurate; • white-collar crime – non-official measures of crime show that this type of crime is frequently not reported or recorded and so rarely appears in the OCS (Marxism) making them incomplete; • police discretion – police forces and officers often focus on different crimes to one another meaning that reliability may be low, e.g. one force cracks down on drug dealing and targets and prosecutes offenders whilst another targets and prosecutes shoplifting – there is thus little comparability; • institutional racism – stop and searches done by the police disproportionately feature ethnic minorities so the OCS are biased and ethnic minorities are thus over-represented in the OCS; • quantitative data – statistics are only numbers and therefore do not show reasons for crimes being committed or the impact upon victims they lack validity; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how informal agencies of social control can make individuals 6 conform. Possible answers: • personalisation – there is often a personal relationship between the individual and the informal agent that makes it more difficult to be deviant, e.g. family; • sanctions – negative comments, ridicule, disapproving looks etc. can all be used by informal agencies in order to discourage deviance; • rewards – praise, treats, presents etc. can all be used by the informal agencies in order to encourage conformity; • internalisation – the informal agencies aim to get individuals to internalise society’s accepted norms and values so that they self-regulate their thoughts and actions and thus become conformist, even when alone; • family use techniques such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley feminism) to encourage gendered socialisation, norms and behaviour; • peers use techniques such as peer pressure in order to persuade individuals to conform to the peer group’s norms and values, e.g. gangs; • media use techniques such as imitation and role modelling to persuade individuals to act and think in a particular way, e.g. beauty standards and ideals; • education uses the hidden curriculum and hierarchies to encourage conformity, e.g. the gendered curriculum/hierarchy; • workplace uses fear of losing your job, social exclusion and alienation (Marxism) to keep the workforce passive and conformist to the ruling class elite; • religion uses narratives, rewards and sanctions to encourage conformity and to discourage deviance e.g. the belief in heaven and hell, religious teachings etc.; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well–developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why community sentencing is an effective way of dealing with 8 crime. Possible answers: • loss of personal freedom – taking away a person’s ability to control their own actions is seen as a punishment and thus the fear of losing this freedom means that most people conform to the rules or do not deviate enough to get community sentencing – deterrence; • tagging – monitoring an individual’s movements through electronic surveillance ensures that the offender cannot commit further crimes and therefore keeps the public safe; • curfews – imposing restrictions on an individual’s movements is a good way of preventing them from entering certain areas or going out at particular times, this can often prevent crimes happening; • community service – it makes offenders give something directly back to the community that they have committed crimes against and is therefore an effective way of trying to make amends; • skills building – community sentencing can often be a way for offenders to build their skill set and so improve self-confidence and self-motivation, e.g. through teamwork, communication skills, punctuality etc. – this will reduce future likelihood of offending; • sanctions – if the specific regulations and requirements of the community sentence are not followed then the offender will face further, more serious sanctions to ensure conformity – most offenders will therefore conform in order to avoid these; • job opportunities – much community sentencing involves offenders completing unpaid work; this may be painting, joinery, caring etc. and can often increase the networks needed to open up future employment possibilities – having a job is likely to reduce the chances of further re- offending; • humiliation/shame – it can often be a public punishment, e.g. offenders in public wearing a ‘uniform’ deters others/the offender from committing further crime and humiliates the offender; • rehabilitation – community sentencing makes offenders realise there are consequences for their actions, thus making it an effective way to deal with crime and prevent further re-offending; • fair system of punishment – the punishment fits the crime, i.e. if you vandalise a park you will be made to clean that park, this means offenders and others in the community can see a clear link between offending and punishment which is likely to prevent further crime; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well–developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is masculinity the best explanation for crime? 15 Possible answers: FOR: • asserting masculinity – men show they are men in different ways such as working hard and providing for their family but some may turn to crime to compensate for their inability to support a family as breadwinner (Mac an Ghaill, crisis in masculinity); • postmodernism – Katz, Lyng, edgework – adventurous and risk-taking behaviour, e.g. joy-riding, stealing, football hooliganism are ways a man’s masculinity may lead to crime; • aggression – assault, domestic violence etc. are ways some men show their masculinity and are all criminal/deviant; • doing masculinity – Messerschmidt – some males turn to crime if they are unable to demonstrate their masculinity through other, legitimate means; • white-collar crime – within their employment men are more likely to commit such crimes due to masculinity as the crime may be motivated by money or needing to fulfil the provider role for their family; • status frustration – Cohen – having a status as masculine is important to young males and if this status cannot be achieved legitimately, e.g. at school or work, then males may try to achieve it through crime instead; • gang crime – to be successful in a gang and climb the hierarchy gang members often need to prove their masculinity through initiation ceremonies and rites of passage – these are often criminal, e.g. assault; • Miller’s focal concerns – working class men – behaving in an overtly masculine way is seen as a norm for working class males and this culture often leads them into crime; • Hyper-masculinity – Sewell – a subculture of black masculinity provides peer support which makes up for the boys’ sense of rejection by their perhaps absent fathers, and for the sense of racism and injustice they feel from wider society which often results in criminal behaviour, e.g. resistance to authority/racism; • toxic masculinity – through media representations, the male gaze (Mulvey) – using maleness in a criminal way to assert authority and maintain power is seen to be legitimised; • masculine gender role strain theory – the strain for males to be masculine (avoiding emotions and vulnerability) can explain acts of criminal violence committed by males – this is often seen as the only way they can show hegemonic masculinity; • sexual crime – feminists claim that men use sexual crimes to reinforce and maintain their power in both private and public spheres and that their masculinity is central to this law-breaking behaviour – patriarchal terrorism; • any other reasonable response. AGAINST: • diversity – what it means to be masculine today has diversified and therefore masculinity per se cannot explain crime as it is not a universal concept, e.g. Connell marginalised/complicit masculinities; 3(e) • female crime – self report studies indicate that relatively large numbers of females commit crimes, despite often not appearing in the official crime statistics – this cannot be explained by masculinity; • Marxism – relative deprivation may be a more reasonable explanation for instrumental crime than masculinity; • racism – discrimination and racial injustice may be a more useful explanation for crime than masculinity and would perhaps help to explain the high conviction rates of young, black males; • postmodernism – crime is seen to be exciting and fun therefore when it is committed this is not about proving one’s masculinity but instead about enjoyment; • Matza drift theory – Matza explains why so many young people commit crimes (most of which do not appear in the official crime statistics) believing it is about experimentation and the transition into adulthood not masculinity; • labelling theory – Becker – crime may be better explained by labelling than masculinity, e.g. high stop and search rates for ethnic minorities, police stereotypes, police targeting etc.; • functionalism – crime is not caused by masculinity but by the need in society to deter others from crime through degradation ceremonies acting as a warning function to others; • inadequate socialisation – Murray, New Right – not being adequately socialised into society’s norms and values better explains crime than masculinity does, e.g. single parent families/the underclass; • changing male roles – males are no longer expected to be breadwinners and providers – many men are househusbands or have female partners who are the main breadwinner therefore committing crime to fulfil the masculine role no longer makes sense; • intersectionality – one factor alone, e.g. masculinity, can rarely explain why a crime has been committed – typically there are more complex factors at play than this; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one– sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list–like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two–sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list–like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one–sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well–developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two–sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well– developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two–sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 41

Sociologists use different measurements of crime. These measurements show that males commit more crime than females. There are many deterre…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘deterrent’? 2 One mark for a partial definition e.g. put you off crime; Two marks for a clear definition e.g. when a punishment is intended to stop the offender or others from committing an offence. 3(b) Describe two measurements of crime used by sociologists. 4 Possible answers: • official statistics – crimes recorded by the police and processed through the criminal justice system; • court records – total number of convictions for different offences and records of the social characteristics of offenders; • self-report studies – research that asks people what crimes or deviant acts they have committed; • victim surveys – research that asks people what crimes they have been victims of e.g. Crime Survey of England and Wales; • local victim surveys – e.g. Islington survey – asking people what crimes they have been victims of but focusing only on a specified local area to understand the impact of crime there; • feminist victim surveys – e.g. Walklate’s research – asking women about what crimes they have been victims of, looking specifically at domestic and sexual crimes and the fear of crime, using a qualitative methodology; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how stereotyping can affect policing. 6 Possible answers: • moral panics – the stereotypes in moral panics affect policing as there is pressure from the public to crack down on certain crimes and criminals, e.g. Fawbert, ‘the hoodies’, Cohen ‘mods and rockers’; • police targeting – the police typically target areas where they believe crime to be found and these assumptions are typically based on stereotypes, often generated by the media e.g. inner-city areas, areas of deprivation etc.; 3(c) • stop and search rates – research shows that young black males are far more likely than any other social group to be stopped and searched by the police, showing that policing has been affected by ethnic stereotyping; • institutional racism – in the UK the McPherson Report and the Casey Report claimed that the police were racist and that racist labels and stereotypes affected every decision made; • distrust of the police – over-policing of certain areas and social groups based on negative stereotypes can result in entire communities forming a distrust of the police; • military policing – in areas stereotyped as ‘difficult’ the police will typically resort to military policing, often breeding further resentment and division; • white-collar crime – these rarely come to the attention of the police because the criminals are not negatively stereotyped and thus rarely fall under the police radar (Marxism); • police discretion – the police decide whether to arrest an individual and what to charge an offender with. Studies show this tends to be affected by stereotypes based on factors such as class, age, gender and ethnicity; • police cuffing – statistics can be manipulated by the police in order to create a good impression and make crimes ‘disappear’. This is most commonly done when the offender does not fit the typical offender stereotype (the crime may be downgraded or recorded as a false report); • police coughing – when an offender fits the stereotype of an offender the police often use pressure to improve their clear up rate e.g. encouraging the offender to admit to further crimes as well; • rioting – riots are often caused by resistance to alleged police unfairness based on stereotypes e.g. the London riots 2011 started because of allegations of police racism; • BLM – the political movement erupted due to accusations of police brutality and institutional racism, alleging the police operated using racial profiling and racist stereotypes and assumptions of offenders; • chivalry factor – Pollak – the police may not believe that a female could be a serious criminal as she does not fit the stereotype, therefore women are more likely to be released without charge or charged with a lesser offence; • double deviance – Heidensohn – studies show that when a woman has committed a heinous crime the police will be tougher on her than with more stereotypically feminine women e.g. Myra Hindley; • typical delinquent – Cicourel – this study shows that the police have a stereotypical image in their heads of who the offenders are most likely to be and that this affects their arrest rate and responses to crime, e.g. male, black, young, poor; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 3(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why males commit more crime than females. 8 Possible answers: • socialisation – Oakley – boys and girls are still socialised differently, leading males to be more aggressive and assertive and females to be more passive – it is not surprising then that males commit more crime; • social control – males are typically less controlled by parents and thus are more likely to be in the public spaces where crime can occur, compared to girls in their ‘bedroom culture’ (McRobbie); • opportunity – in a patriarchal world, males still have more opportunities to commit crime than females e.g. white-collar and corporate crime require individuals to be in the workplace – more likely to be males than females; • asserting masculinity – the need for males to ‘prove’ their hegemonic masculinity in an increasingly feminised world has led many sociologists to believe that crime is an extension of the quest for male dominance, e.g. violence, sexual assault, domestic abuse etc.; • risk-taking behaviour – postmodernists believe the normal behaviour of males is closely aligned to criminality and their love for adventure and risk often leads them to transgress (Edgework); • gang culture – gangs are male dominated and in many areas/countries are seen as a viable career for males – illegitimate opportunity structures (Cloward and Ohlin); • male role models – stars and celebrities that influence young males are often linked to drugs, violence, misogyny etc. and this can cause males to imitate their crimes; • status frustration – Cohen’s study showed that boys suffered from this with high rates of male unemployment and the decline of manual work, they turned to crime to compensate and gain status; • instrumental role – the stereotype still abounds that men should be the provider and breadwinner in the family – if they are unable to live up to the demands of this role they may turn to instrumental crime instead; • biology – boys are physically stronger and have more testosterone which many researchers believe leads to them being naturally more criminal than females; • educational qualifications – boys do less well at school than girls so are often unable to access the top jobs with high pay and so turn to crime to compensate; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. 3(d) Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is formal social control more effective than informal 15 social control at preventing crime? Possible answers: FOR • police – power of arrest, deterrence, patrols etc. all effectively control individuals and society in order to make us conform to the rules and so prevent crime; • prison – individuals lose their liberty and have severe restrictions on freedom in order to ensure compliance through the ‘fear factor’ that prevents crime; • government – they set the laws and give authority to the formal agents that makes us conform – these legally approved powers are highly effective e.g. pandemic restrictions; • armed forces – they use force and weapons in order to make us conform to the laws and so prevent crime, they are also often brought in to support the police in times of anomie e.g. riots, social unrest etc.; • courts – their power of sentencing means they can control and change our lives thus making us conform and not commit crime; • school sanctions – Marxists see schools as micro versions of society therefore the formal sanctions used to control indoctrinate us for when we leave school and so prevent crime; • workplace sanctions – the fear of losing our jobs or being demoted makes us conform to the system and not commit workplace crime e.g. stealing from shops, white-collar crime etc.; • segregation – deviants are increasingly removed from the community on order to prevent crime e.g. detention centres, isolation units, prisons etc.; • surveillance – our behaviour is closely monitored daily to increase public safety and to prevent crime; • medical interventions – the state is increasingly allowed to intervene in 3(e) human lives in order to prevent crime e.g. sectioning patients, castration, medication etc.; • capital and corporal punishment – the fear of losing your life or being beaten is used in many countries to prevent crime, serving as a warning function to society (functionalism); • religious laws – e.g. Shariah law – sometimes religion becomes a formal part of the law and thus is central in preventing crime; • authority and power – all of the formal methods of social control are backed by the law and thus have more authority than informal methods – this may well make them more effective at preventing crime; • any other reasonable response. AGAINST: • primary socialisation – functionalists believe that the best way to prevent crime is through effective socialisation in the nuclear family therefore informal methods are more effective than formal; • New Right – Murray believes that crime is caused through underclass values and a lack of discipline in society, stigmatising lone parents and their children and ensuring father figures are present to discipline children is how crime is prevented i.e. informally; • education – the hidden curriculum is seen by Marxists as a key method of control as it is crucial for ensuring social conformity and therefore preventing crime; • media – reporting criminal behaviour in the media informs people about behaviour that will be punished and reinforces shared norms and values – this is far more effective at preventing crime than formal methods; • religion – religious norms and values outlaw crime and thus is a very effective way to prevent crime e.g. The Ten Commandments; • peers – young people are heavily influenced by peer pressure therefore positive peer groups are the best way to prevent crime from happening e.g. pro-school subcultures; • role models – young people are fully immersed in digital and social media (postmodernism) and are heavily influenced by celebrities and influencers– using such figures to prevent crime will be far more effective than using formal methods; • recidivism – the high rates of re-offending in most societies show that formal methods do not prevent crime; • preventative rather than reactive – schemes that prevent crime from happening can only be effective if they are informal as the formal agents and methods do not really take place unless criminal behaviour has already occurred; • personal relationships – feelings of guilt and not wanting to let someone down (informal) are thought by many to be far more effective at preventing crime than the impersonal measures used by formal agents; • community/youth schemes and interventions – these informal methods are favoured by many sociologists as the best way to prevent crime – through raising young people’s self-esteem, giving them a positive focus (e.g. sport) and a sense of belonging; • any other reasonable response. 3(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well- developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 42

(a) Define the term: (i) peer group [2] (ii) hate crime. [2] (b) State two strengths of using official statistics to measure crime. [2] (c)…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) Define the term peer group. 2 Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. your friends. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. people of the same status and age. 3(a)(ii) Define the term hate crime. 2 Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. racial assault. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. offences in which the victim is targeted because of certain characteristics e.g. religion, age, sexuality or race. 3(b) State two strengths of using official statistics to measure crime. 2 Award one mark for each correct strength (up to a maximum of two). Possible responses: • patterns and trends in crimes committed can be easily seen; • quantitative data means comparisons over time/between social groups can easily be made; • they show what types of people are offenders and victims; • they are published online and so are easily accessible and free; • they can be used to see what crimes are increasing and what crimes are decreasing; • they are typically published every year and so are up to date; • they are published by the government and based on police and court records so can be trusted; • they show data for an entire nation and so are both representative and generalisable; • they are reliable – standardised data; • any other reasonable response. 3(c) Explain three reasons why people commit instrumental crime. 6 Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • for money – financial reasons such as poverty and material deprivation can lead some people to instrumental crime; • capitalist consumer culture – even higher class people may commit instrumental crimes e.g. white-collar/corporate crime as a way to maximise profit, • due to a lack of opportunity – high unemployment rates and reduced job opportunities may lead some people to commit crime; • to improve social position – instrumental crime can increase status and position within the hierarchy (e.g. gangs) which cannot be achieved legitimately – Cohen’s status frustration; • for material possessions – relative deprivation, the feeling of having less than others in your community/society, often fuelled by the media may lead some people to commit instrumental crimes as a way to gain these desirable goods; • due to prejudice and discrimination – instrumental crime may be the intended response to perceived inequalities that leaves the perpetrator feeling disillusioned about the unfairness of society i.e. being unable to get a job s/he is qualified for; • a means of resistance – the feeling experienced by many marginalised groups of being targeted and treated unjustly by the police may lead to instrumental crimes e.g. BLM protests, riots and looting as forms of instrumental crimes; • to prove masculinity – the culture of masculinity means some males may commit instrumental crime in order to prove or increase their masculinity e.g. violence/assault; • any other reasonable response. 3(d) Explain three aspects of the postmodern view of crime. 6 Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • individualism – reasons for crime cannot be generalised as every individual has their own personal reasons for committing crimes meaning all the traditional sociological explanations are flawed; • social construction of crime – there is no definite, agreed definition of crime as crime varies enormously over time and between cultures. This means there is no point investigating why people become criminals because certain behaviours may or may not be criminal in different cultures and at different times; • crime as fun – Katz – crime is seen to be exciting and fun and therefore for young people this is the reason it’s committed; • edgework – Lyng – crime is about risk taking behaviour as a temporary escape from societies rules, control and boundaries; • harm caused by crime – postmodernists believe we should study more about the harm caused by crime to society and individuals e.g. green or corporate crimes; • emotional link – crime may be related to individual feelings and emotions in a particular moment or context rather than being caused by wider social and structural factors; • any other reasonable response. 3(e) Discuss the view that crime and deviance vary cross-culturally. 8 Use Table A to mark answers to this question. Possible responses: • laws – some things are legal in some countries but illegal in others e.g. possession of cannabis; • morals – in the West monogamy is valued and marrying more than one person at a time would be considered a criminal offence whereas in other cultures polygamy is both legal and widely accepted; • religion – this may directly affect the laws e.g. Shariah law in Islamic nations affects every part of an individual’s life in contrast to civil laws and secular cultures; • sub-cultures – what is defined as deviant in some sub-cultures is not the same as others e.g. punks have brightly coloured Mohican hairstyles and ripped, offensive clothing whereas this is not deemed acceptable or appropriate by wider society; • social class – Miller ‘focal concerns’ – working class culture can be linked to street culture and low level criminality and Miller’s research found that this was accepted as a normal part of life whereas for other social classes this would be viewed as deviant and unacceptable; • age – younger people are more likely to push the boundaries and engage in criminal/deviant behaviour than older people because it is seen as fun, risk-taking behaviour (Katz & Lyng); • ethnicity – some ethnic groups may have cultural practices that infringe the laws of a country e.g. possession of marijuana in the UK is illegal and yet is commonly used by some ethnic groups; • gender expectations – in Afghanistan the Taliban have no state-run domestic abuse shelters for female victims and instead send them to prison, girls cannot get a secondary or higher education and they are banned from many public places. These laws themselves would be considered criminal and deviant in many other cultures; • punishment – some countries use capital/corporal/physical punishment to deal with criminals e.g. the Middle East, whereas other countries adopt a more rehabilitative approach to crime e.g. Scandinavia; • tribal culture – Mead, New Guinea – feminine characteristics and behaviour of males was the norm in one of the tribes she studied compared to hegemonic masculinity and a stigmatisation of feminine males as deviant in the West; • gangs – gang culture normalises and, indeed, values criminal and deviant behaviour such as violence and murder whereas wider society condemns this and perceives it as criminality; • any other reasonable response. 3(f) Evaluate the view that non-custodial sentencing is the most effective type 14 of punishment. Use Table B to mark answers to this question. Possible responses for: • community sentencing – the offender is made to do unpaid, compulsory work for a set period of time. This is typically related to the offence in some way e.g. a conviction for vandalism may result in a sentence where property has to be repaired. This teaches the offender about the consequences of crime making them reconsider their future actions; • financial penalties – this kind of sentence is often used for less serious crimes whereby a sum of money must be paid by the offender to the court and/or the victim as punishment for the crime committed. In a capitalist society this can be more effective than prison as money is highly valued and so by losing this an offender will be put off from re-offending in the future (deterrence); • rehabilitation programs outside prison – this could be for addiction, education and training or mental health – these often run alongside other non-custodial sentences and ensure that the offender is ‘treated’ so that the chance of future re-offending is lessened as the issue causing crime is no longer there; • capital punishment – some countries and states operate the death penalty as they do not believe that prison is a serious enough sentence for the most awful, heinous crimes. Capital punishment protects citizens and sends a clear message to prolific offenders that crime will not be tolerated, so deterring them from a life of crime; • corporal punishment – a physical punishment that causes pain e.g. flogging or whipping. The shame of such a public punishment is enough to deter many from committing crime whilst for others if this punishment is imposed it is something that they do not wish to repeat – again making it an effective form of punishment; • exile and ostracism – having to leave one’s home and community, receiving an injunction or a restraining order and/or being shunned by the community is an effective punishment as it firstly prevents the crime from happening and secondly places feelings of guilt onto the offender that are not desirable. This thus also deters others from committing crimes; • surveillance – e.g. curfews, electronic tagging and having to avoid certain areas/people – by watching the offender criminal behaviour is prevented as they must follow the rules imposed or face more severe sanctions. These restrictions mean that the offender will not be tempted to re-offend and that the public are safe, making it a very effective punishment for crime; • probation – a period of time within which the offender is monitored within the community – the offender is closely monitored by the authorities and also has regular meetings with a probation officer who can help with training and employment needs. It is an effective way of checking whether an offender has been reformed and is safe to live within the community without offending, thus making it a very effective form of punishment; 3(f) • police cautions – for minor offences when the offender accepts their guilt, an official police warning is given as a sentence rather that anything more serious. This is a cost effective and quick way of dealing with more minor offences with a clear message to offenders that any further law breaking will result in more serious consequences; • social media and vigilante groups – the growth of social media means that messages, images and posts spread quickly. Being threatened or attacked by members of the community is a big deterrent to offenders as is the thought of their image being all over the internet. This makes it an effective form of punishment; • informal methods of punishment – fear of letting loved ones down, family and friends, and being shamed through the crimes committed can be the worst form of punishment due to the emotional connections involved. This therefore prevents crime as individuals do not want to face stigma and shame from family/peers/teachers/colleagues etc.; • cost – non-custodial sentencing is often a cheaper alternative than incarceration and this means that it can be thought of as more effective for a country as more of it can be offered with the aim of reducing crime; • any other reasonable response. Possible responses against: • prison as a deterrent through loss of freedom – this is the most effective type of punishment because prisons are negatively represented in the media and people know that if they are incarcerated there will be a loss of liberty. This all helps to put people off from committing crimes – far more so than non-custodial sentencing; • prison prevents further offending in society – non-custodial sentencing cannot guarantee that the offender will not commit another crime whereas prison can contain the individual, remove them from society and thus prevent offending from being able to take place; • prison rehabilitation programs – access to education, training, addiction treatment and therapy/counselling are far easier and cheaper to access inside prisons than outside. In terms of rehabilitation, this therefore means that custodial sentencing is most effective as it is the way most criminals will access support to help them not offend again; • poor living conditions in prison – in many countries the prison regime is tough and unappealing. This is also the image portrayed through the media. This ensures prison is seen as a deterrent to crime and is an effective punishment; • restorative justice in prisons – new programs have been introduced into many prisons whereby offender and victim (or victim’s family) are able to meet and talk as a way to ensure offenders realise the impact their criminality has on others. The success rates in terms of reduced rates of re-offending is high, showing the effectiveness of custodial sentences; • severity of prison regimes – having limited freedom, reducing social contact, making work compulsory and forcing accountability for the crimes committed can only happen through custodial sentencing – this makes this form of punishment more effective than any non-custodial sentences can be; 3(f) • Scandinavian prisons, an alternative approach – not all prison systems have high levels of recidivism, violence and anti-social behaviour. Custodial sentencing can be gentler and more rehabilitative, as in places like Norway and Sweden, and in such a context the custodial sentences are the most effective punishment as they are able to combine re- socialisation with a removal of the offender from the criminal context and the criminal connections; • New Right criticisms of non-custodial sentencing as being ‘too soft’ on crime – the right wing view is that the only way to effectively punish criminals and reduce repeat offending is to ‘get tough on crime’. Policies such as zero tolerance and three strikes are thought to be far more effective deterrents than any of the non-custodial options; • public safety – prisons are the only method of punishment that can guarantee the public’s safety as the offender is removed from society and locked away. Custodial sentencing is thus more effective than non- custodial. • informal social control – it may be the informal agencies that are the most effective at preventing crime as they are able to socialise and inculcate individuals at an early age into conformity and the view that crime is wrong; • any other reasonable response.

Question 43

(a) Define the term: (i) vigilante groups [2] (ii) misogyny. [2] (b) State two features of gang culture. [2] (c) Describe three ways the po…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) Define the term vigilante groups. 2 Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. take the law into your own hands. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. self-appointed people with no legal authority who punish people they believe are offenders. 3(a)(ii) Define the term misogyny. 2 Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. sexism. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. hatred of women, predominantly by men. 3(b) State two features of gang culture. 2 Award one mark for each correct feature (up to a maximum of two). Possible responses: • often comprised of young people; • often comprised of males; • often comprised of ethnic minorities; • criminal and/or violent behaviour as the norm e.g. drug dealing; • organised group of people, usually with a clear hierarchy and leader; • often territorial in nature e.g. postcode gangs; • often involves an initiation process, a ‘test’ to prove one’s loyalty to the gang; • often associated with deprived, inner-city areas (working class); • defending the gang and not reporting crime to the police is highly valued; • people may join gangs for protection e.g. from racist attacks; • associated gang ‘uniform’ e.g. wearing particular colours; • gang symbols/markers e.g. tattoos; • any other reasonable response. 3(c) Describe three ways the police can control individuals. 6 Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • police cautions – where the offender accepts their guilt the police can give police cautions for minor offences. This is recorded on a criminal record and so acts as a warning to offenders; • police targeting – the police can focus on a particular area or group of people because they believe they are more likely to be involved in criminal behaviour e.g. ethnic minorities, inner-city areas – this constant police presence controls individuals; • stop and search – this police control method is used to focus on those in society the police believe most likely to have committed a crime and gives the police the power to stop and search them – it is often based on stereotyping and has even led to police brutality e.g. BLM; • police surveillance – citizens are under almost constant surveillance and this feeling of being watched and monitored results in most people being controlled into not committing crimes e.g. CCTV, tagging etc.; • community policing – working with the community, visibly on patrol, building good relationships based on trust – encourages individuals to report crime to the police and so is able to control; • military policing – police are often armed and perceived as ‘outsiders’, sent to areas of unrest where they have no understanding of the community, rather like an invading army; force and fear is used to control; • power of arrest – the police have the power to arrest individuals and so control them through expectations of conformity as no one wants to be arrested and be subject to the criminal justice system and the fear of gaining a criminal record; • zero tolerance policing – the police acted against minor offences e.g. possession of drugs, littering, to send a message to criminals that no crime would be tolerated (NYC, broken windows theory) – this effectively controlled individuals as the crime rate fell; • deterrence – police presence aims to be a deterrent to criminal behaviour, going so far as to use cardboard cut outs to mimic officers and create social conformity; • any other reasonable response. 3(d) Explain three limitations of the interactionist explanation of crime and 6 deviance. Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • deviance created through labelling – most people know they are breaking norms and laws even if their actions are not detected, so deviance is not created by the label as Interactionists say; • passive victims – labelling theory tends to imply that deviants are the passive victims of the labels applied to them but individuals can and do choose to be deviant, whether they have been labelled or not; • origins of labelling – labelling theory does not fully explain why some people are labelled and others are not, or why some activities are against the law and others are not; • criminals as victims of labelling – the theory implies this is the case but the label may have been applied because of a deviant or criminal act which caused serious harm and so should be condemned; • dark figure of crime – labelling theory fails to explain why some people commit crimes even when they have not been publicly labelled e.g. females and the higher classes; • crime and deviance are socially constructed – interactionists fail to take into account the fact that some behaviour would always be seen as deviant, whatever the context or social reaction e.g. murder; • folk devils and moral panics cause more crime – this can be criticised by the idea that people do not passively accept what they consume in the media, they are active and questioning and critical; • moral panic theory as outdated – as new media becomes more interactive and consumer led, so moral panic theory starts to seem outdated as there is no longer a centralised source of information meaning the media cannot create moral panics in the same way it perhaps used to (e.g. mods and rockers); • any other reasonable response. 3(e) Discuss the view that prison prevents crime. 8 Use Table A to mark answers to this question. Possible responses: • incapacitation – preventing the offender from committing more crime by imprisoning them and removing their freedom; • deterrence – prison puts people off committing crime because they are aware of the consequences of being imprisoned e.g. loss of liberty, limited time with family, harsh conditions etc.; • rehabilitation – education and training programs within prison help to prevent crime by changing the offender’s attitude and behaviour. This will improve their job prospects on release; • causes of criminality – counselling or treatment for addiction may be available when in prison and by tackling the root cause of the offending further criminality can be prevented; • restorative justice – when in prison offenders can be asked to meet with their victims so the offender can hear about the way their offending has impacted and affected the victim. By understanding the impact of their actions, offenders can be motivated to change and so further crime is prevented; • harsh reality of prison life – in many prisons facilities are minimal and conditions are tough, bullying is rife and prisoners are locked away for hours on end with little to do – media representations of such prisons can prevent crime as people do not want to live in such a way; • juvenile detention – by giving young offenders a ‘short, sharp, shock’ further criminal behaviour can be prevented as young people realise that their actions have consequences and perhaps see first-hand that prison life is not the glamourous, edgy lifestyle it can sometimes be portrayed as; • any other reasonable response. 3(f) Evaluate the view that gender is the most important factor in explaining 14 why an individual commits crime. Use Table B to mark answers to this question. Possible responses for: • official statistics – the patterns and trends in the OCS reveal that males are far more likely than females to commit a crime which indicates that gender is a very significant factor in determining criminality; • chivalry thesis – Pollak – females are less likely to be charged or convicted of crimes than males because they are treated differently by the criminal justice system – this leads to females being under- represented in the official statistics and shows how important gender is in terms of crime; • culture of masculinity – males are still expected to be hegemonic and this pressure may lead them to crime as they have to assert their masculinity to others e.g. through violence, power, humiliation; • gendered socialisation – boys and girls are socialised differently (e.g. Oakley’s theory) and this may explain the higher rates of offending for males – boys are encouraged to be more active and aggressive whereas girls are encouraged to be passive and docile; • social control – females are more strictly controlled by the agents of social control than are males and this therefore limits their chances of becoming criminal e.g. McRobbie’s ‘bedroom culture’ shows how girls are at home more than boys – if boys are out on the streets without parental figures to control them then they are much more likely to be drawn into criminal behaviour; • misogyny – the idea of seeing women as lesser, inferior and a threat to men – misogynists assert their perceived dominance over females in many ways, some of which are deviant and criminal, e.g. harassment, domestic violence, sexual assault and even murder; • lack of opportunity – males may turn to crime if other routes to material success are blocked for them as they are still perceived as breadwinners in most societies e.g. instrumental crime; • gang culture – there are more males than females in gangs and some gangs are exclusively male – if there is a strong gang culture in an area then this can often lead males into criminal behaviour (Cloward and Ohlin‘s ‘illegitimate opportunity structure’); • police targeting and stereotyping – if the police and the criminal justice system think that males are more likely to be criminal than females then they are likely to target them and thus arrest them more often; this may lead to deviancy amplification amongst males and so perpetuate the stereotype of male as criminal; • feminism – males may feel threatened by the rise of women in society and the perceived threat to their dominance and high status, thus crime may be a way for men to control women and ‘keep them in their place’ e.g. patriarchy, gaslighting, coercion, domestic abuse etc.; • any other reasonable response. 3(f) Possible responses against: • dark figure of crime – it is impossible to know whether gender is a key indicator in criminality as there is so much crime that we do not know about, the unreported and unrecorded crimes; • unofficial measures of crime – victim surveys and self-report studies reveal different patterns and trends to the official statistics and perhaps contradict the notion that crime is linked to masculinity, if females offend as well then is gender really that important?; • social class – crime is disproportionately committed by those in the lower social classes and it is perhaps this social factor rather than gender that is most important in determining criminality (e.g. poverty, relative deprivation, status frustration, strain theory etc.); • ethnicity – crime is disproportionately committed by ethnic minorities therefore perhaps ethnicity is a more significant factor than gender (e.g. racism, police targeting, gangs etc.); • age – most crime is committed by young people and therefore perhaps age is a more significant factor than gender (e.g. media stereotyping, status frustration etc.); • peer group – the peer group someone is a part of may be more important than their gender in determining whether or not they commit crime e.g. peer pressure, pro or anti-school subculture etc.; • individualism – reasons for crime cannot be generalised and are often individual and personal, this view means that gender is not significant in determining whether someone is likely to commit crime; • postmodernism – crime is not caused by gender but instead by the search for thrills and excitement which can be relevant to anybody, regardless of their gender; • labelling theory – it is not just males that are labelled as criminals, other social groups are as well, therefore, to pick just one social factor as being most influential seems misleading – intersectionality; • any other reasonable response.

Question 44

(a) Define the term: (i) linguistic factors [2] (ii) conformity. [2] (b) Give two examples of an ethnocentric curriculum. [2] (c) Describe …

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) Define the term linguistic factors. 2 Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. language. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. the type of language children speak e.g. restricted and elaborated codes. 2(a)(ii) Define the term conformity. 2 Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. fitting in. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. behaviour that follows the usual standards and expectations of a group, culture and/or society. 2(b) Give two examples of an ethnocentric curriculum. 2 Award one mark for each correct example (up to a maximum of two). Possible responses: • host nation – their norms, values and beliefs are embedded into the educational curriculum; • language teaching – the language and cultures of ethnic minority learners may be seen by the school as being of lesser value; • teaching of literature – poetry and books from the culture of ethnic minority learners may not be considered worth studying; • teaching of history – learners from ethnic minority groups may learn nothing about their own people’s experiences; • religion and worship in assemblies – the ethnic minority learners’ beliefs may be ignored and they may even be forced to follow the practices of the majority; • celebration of festivals based on the dominant culture – ethnic minority learners’ festivals may be ignored; • any other reasonable response. 2(c) Describe three benefits of attending private school. 6 Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • class sizes – classes in private schools tend to be smaller, so individual learners get more attention from the teacher; • more choice in curriculum – private schools do not have to follow a national curriculum so they can concentrate on teaching what they believe to be most important and/or what their parents want; • parental choice – private schools are very diverse institutions and so parents can choose the school that best suits their children’s needs; • money and funding – private schools have more money than state schools meaning they have better resources and facilities for the students e.g. swimming pools, ICT, science equipment etc., often also resulting in better results; • social capital – Bourdieu – private schools allow students to make networks and connections that can help them find employment in high status professions and companies in the future; • extra-curricular opportunities – private schools are renowned for the plethora of extra-curricular activities on offer, allowing students to experience a wide variety of sports, culture, arts, theatre etc. and so increasing cultural capital (Bourdieu); • life chances and social mobility – private schools typically gain better examination results than the state sector meaning that students have better chances of entering highly paid and high status fields of employment; • any other reasonable response. 2(d) Explain three limitations of the functionalist view of education. 6 Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • lack of shared values – functionalists are wrong to suggest there is a shared set of values in education. Marxists say that the values passed on are those of the ruling class whereas feminists say they are the patriarchal values. Subcultures also challenge the notion of shared values; • myth of meritocracy – education is not equal and fair – many factors can affect a student’s experience of education and their educational success that have nothing to do with effort or ability e.g. quality of the school, home background, peer group, gender, social class, ethnicity etc.; • connection between school and work – functionalist claims that there is a strong link between school and work are false. Adults at work use little of what they have learnt at school, companies often complain about low literacy and numeracy skills of school leavers – learners are taught things they do not need instead of things that would be useful in the workplace; • selection for employment – functionalists are incorrect to claim that educational achievement will determine which job one enters – people are often selected for a job role dependent upon their gender, ethnicity, age and social class; • setting by ability – functionalists ignore the role that teacher expectations and judgements play in determining which set or stream a student finds themselves in, it is not always based on academic ability e.g. higher sets are dominated by the higher social classes; • socialisation – many other agencies exist where socialisation can take place, education is not essential for this e.g. peer group, family, media, religion; • stigma of vocationalism – whilst vocationalism does exist in educational systems, functionalists ignore the fact that it is seen as a less prestigious, less important form of education, often assigned to the lower social classes; • any other reasonable response. 2(e) Discuss how boys and girls experience school differently. 8 Use Table A to mark answers to this question. Possible responses: • schooling for boys – boys have historically been more likely to go to school and get qualifications as schooling for boys was, and still is in many cultures, seen to be more important than for girls; • leaving school earlier – girls may leave school earlier than boys due to their cultural expectations, e.g. getting married, having children (e.g. traveller children); • high expectations – due to feminism girls often have high career aspirations and will work hard to get what they want and achieve their goals, following their female successful role models (Sharpe). Males may not experience this as they look towards manual work, following in their father’s footsteps etc. and so do not engage as much with education and teachers; • engagement with learning – sociologists think education in schools may be more suited to a girl’s socialisation than a boy’s socialisation as the focus is on conformity, submitting to authority, being quiet, reading and writing. Thus girls may experience school as a more familiar and comfortable place than boys; • subject choice – this is still quite stereotypical and may be explained by gender socialisation, e.g. boys are more likely to choose technical and sports-based subjects e.g. engineering or PE, whereas girls are more likely to choose communication/thinking based subjects e.g. sociology, history or literature; • teacher expectations – boys and girls may be treated differently in schools e.g. teachers may see poor study habits and rowdy behaviour as normal for boys whilst similar behaviour from girls is not tolerated; • peer groups – boys are more likely to reject school values and form anti-school sub-cultures (e.g. Willis ‘the lads’) whereas girls are conformist and more likely to be part of a pro-school sub-culture; • study habits – girls tend to work harder than boys, engage more in lessons, do more homework and be better organised – this may be down to socialisation, peer pressure, maturity levels and pressure to be masculine/feminine – thus experiences of boys and girls in school are very different; • hidden curriculum – this may send the message that expectations of males and females in schools are different e.g. boys are often asked to carry heavy boxes, girls to tidy the classroom – gender roles are experienced differently; • hierarchy – despite teaching being a female dominated profession, there are fewer women in positions of authority in schools meaning the system can be seen as quite patriarchal. This may socialise girls into believing that management and leadership is something boys, not girls, do, so resulting in a different experience of school to boys; 2(e) • male advantage – girls face the following problems in education: lack of confidence in their ability, dominance of boys in the classroom, receiving less teacher time than boys, different teacher expectations (feminism, e.g. Dale Spender). All of these factors means that the experience of school is very different for girls when compared to boys; • access to education – globally, in developing countries in particular, boys’ education is prioritised over girls’ education meaning many girls remain uneducated. Going to school can be difficult for girls at times, e.g. in Africa many schools have no toilets meaning girls will often not attend when they have their period. Experiences are thus very different; • any other reasonable response. 2(f) Evaluate the view that cultural factors have the most impact on 14 educational achievement. Use Table B to mark answers to this question. Possible responses for: • fatalism – working class children may feel that they are not in control of their own fate and cannot change their destiny so there is no point in them studying at school; • immediate gratification – being unable to see the benefits of long-term rewards (deferred gratification) meaning that working class children may want to start earning money as soon as possible rather than studying which would bring the long-term reward of better pay and a higher status career; • thrills and excitement – working class children, especially boys, may turn to deviant activities as a source of excitement in an otherwise boring life – culture of masculinity – which could lead them into trouble, so negatively affecting their education; • valuing education – some parents do not value education, perhaps because they had negative experiences themselves, and this attitude is internalised by their children too; • cultural capital – working class children may lack the cultural capital (tastes, values and behaviour) that higher class children have (Bourdieu) e.g. being unfamiliar with theatre, galleries, books etc.; • linguistic factors – Bernstein – middle class children are more likely to be confident using elaborated code than working class children who are more exposed to restricted code which has no value in education; • ethnicity – Archer’s research demonstrated how culture can be so influential on educational achievement through her research into the Chinese community in the UK – parental attitudes, values and expectations of their children determined their success (similar to the ‘Tiger mums’ findings); • any other reasonable response. 2(f) Possible responses against: • material factors – material deprivation may be more important than cultural factors in explaining educational achievement e.g. not having a quiet place to study, unable to afford resources and equipment, having part time jobs to help support the family etc.; • in-school factors – Rutter’s research indicates that the most important factor in determining educational success is whether or not you attend a ‘good school‘, not cultural factors; • home factors – lack of successful role models in the family. If a child does not know someone who has benefitted from doing well in education then they are unlikely to see its benefits themselves; • community factors – children may be tempted into gangs/deviant behaviour if they live in communities blighted by drugs and crime – this will affect their chances of educational success; • peer group – whether a student belongs to a pro- or an anti-school subculture may be the most important influence on how well they do in education (e.g. Willis); • type of school – students attending private and/or selective education are more likely to do well in school than those who cannot afford this type of school (Marxism); • labelling theory – teachers make assumptions about and judge students based on appearance and background and Interactionists like Becker believe this explains educational achievement e.g. through the self-fulfilling prophecy or halo effect; • setting and streaming – teacher expectations are different for students in different sets and this may be the most influential factor in determining educational achievement; • racism and the ethnocentric curriculum – when the dominant culture is seen to be more important than other cultures, giving them little place in the school curriculum, ethnic minority students may feel marginalised and so disengage or ‘play up’; • feminisation of education – boys may not achieve as well as girls in education because education is seen to be a ‘feminine’ world where reading, writing and creativity are valued over actions; • any other reasonable response.

Question	Answer	Marks	From
1	see sheet	35	0495/21 May/June 2017
2	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2017
3	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2017
4	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2018
5	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2018
6	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2019
7	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2019
8	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2019
9	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2019
10	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2019
11	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2020
12	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2020
13	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2020
14	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2020
15	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2020
16	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2020
17	see sheet	35	0495/21 May/June 2021
18	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2021
19	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2021
20	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2021
21	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2021
22	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2022
23	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2022
24	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2022
25	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2022
26	see sheet	35	0495/21 May/June 2023
27	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2023
28	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2023
29	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2023
30	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2023
31	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2023
32	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2023
33	see sheet	35	0495/21 May/June 2024
34	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2024
35	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2024
36	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2024
37	see sheet	35	0495/23 May/June 2024
38	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2024
39	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2024
40	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2024
41	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2024
42	see sheet	40	0495/21 May/June 2025
43	see sheet	40	0495/22 May/June 2025
44	see sheet	40	0495/23 May/June 2025

Questions18 pages

Mark scheme44 answers

Another paper, or another topic

Questions as text

Q1 · According to official figures, crime rates vary between different social groups 0495/21 May/June 2017

Q2 · Formal education in the world today takes many forms 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2017

Q3 · Today’s media are increasingly difficult to control 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2017

Q4 · Acts of crime and deviance are often associated with youth sub-cultures 0495/22 May/June 2018

Q5 · Researching why crime is committed is a complex issue due to the many possible… 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2018

Q6 · According to official crime statistics an individual’s social characteristics can affect… 0495/23 May/June 2019

Q7 · Education takes many forms and can be formal or informal 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2019

Q8 · Sociologists view education in different ways 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2019

Q9 · Social groups vary in their use of media 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2019

Q10 · Education takes many forms and can be formal or informal 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2019

Q11 · Whether gender equality in the family exists is a matter of debate 0495/22 May/June 2020

Q12 · Sociologists debate whether cultural deprivation, labelling and material factors limit… 0495/23 May/June 2020

Q13 · In recent years the media has changed due to factors such as the growth of the internet… 0495/23 May/June 2020

Q14 · There are many different types of schools students can attend today, such as private and… 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2020

Q15 · The education system uses sanctions and rewards which many sociologists consider to be as… 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2020

Q16 · There are many different types of schools students can attend today, such as private and… 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2020

Q17 · Societies and cultures are changing rapidly and it is in the media that the biggest… 0495/21 May/June 2021

Q18 · Patterns of educational achievement vary across social groups 0495/22 May/June 2021

Q19 · Some sociologists argue that globalisation has improved equality in the media 0495/22 May/June 2021

Q20 · The media is funded both publicly and privately 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2021

Q21 · As an increasingly important agency of socialisation, the media has a lot of power in… 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2021

Q22 · There are many explanations for crime such as labelling theory and Marxism, as well as… 0495/22 May/June 2022

Q23 · There are many ways to prevent crime, for example effective socialisation and informal… 0495/23 May/June 2022

Q24 · Education is an important agent of secondary socialisation in which IQ tests are often… 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2022

Q25 · Some sociologists argue that all media represent dominant news values 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2022

Q26 · Educational achievement is not the same for everyone 0495/21 May/June 2023

Q27 · Different measurements of crime show the patterns of who commits crime and the types of… 0495/23 May/June 2023

Q28 · Many sociologists believe that audiences are affected by what they consume in the media 0495/23 May/June 2023

Q29 · The family and individual roles within the family have changed in many different ways 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2023

Q30 · Official crime statistics reveal a clear trend that most crimes are committed by males 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2023

Q31 · Contemporary media includes both new and traditional media and is an agent of… 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2023

Q32 · According to official crime statistics people from the lower social classes, such as… 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2023

Q33 · Education differs across the world and there are many different types of schools 0495/21 May/June 2024

Q34 · Girls and boys often study different subjects in schools 0495/22 May/June 2024

Q35 · Sociologists debate whether families are functional or dysfunctional 0495/23 May/June 2024

Q36 · There are many different types of schools 0495/23 May/June 2024

Q37 · Victim surveys show that there is a dark figure of female crime 0495/23 May/June 2024

Q38 · There are inequalities in patterns of educational achievement 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2024

Q39 · Crime and deviance are relative 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2024

Q40 · Official crime statistics show how much crime has been committed in society 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2024

Q41 · Sociologists use different measurements of crime 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2024

Q42 · Define the term: (i) peer group [2] (ii) hate crime 0495/21 May/June 2025

Q43 · Define the term: (i) vigilante groups [2] (ii) misogyny 0495/22 May/June 2025

Q44 · Define the term: (i) linguistic factors [2] (ii) conformity 0495/23 May/June 2025