Motivation to work — Paper 3 — A Level Psychology (from 2018) 9990 topical questions

Question 1

(a) Outline one type of job absenteeism. [2] (b) Describe the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967). [4] (c) Explain on…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Outline one type of job absenteeism. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed outline of the term/concept. For example: Career enhancing absences – to further task and career related goals (e.g. interviews at other companies, making links with other companies or training for a qualification to enhance career). Medical – where there is a medical issue that the employee needs to take time off for such as an illness, doctor’s or hospital appointment. Normative absences – Pattern of absences would occur rather than being random. Likely to be using personal days. Calculative absences – taking as many excused and non-excused absences as they can ‘get away with’ (without modifying the implicit social contract between employee and employer) Also allow the following – Voluntary absenteeism refers to instances where the worker has chosen to take the time off – an extra day at the weekend or an appointment or interview. OR Involuntary absenteeism refers to when the worker does not chose to be absent but something unexpected occurs such as illness, family demands, etc. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967). 4 Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: There is both a short and a long version of this questionnaire. The long version has 100 items and the short version has 20 and both measure job satisfaction. Areas covered include supervisors, security, independence, task variety, responsibility, promotion, etc. The worker has to rate how much he or she agrees with the statement on a 5-point scale from ‘very dissatisfied’ to ‘very satisfied’ (later version goes from not satisfied to extremely satisfied). An example of one of the statements is ‘This is how satisfied I feel with the responsibility of my job.’ Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between the Minnesota 6 satisfaction questionnaire and one other questionnaire used to measure job satisfaction. Likely similarities and differences will be to other questionnaires including the job descriptive index and the quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire. Similarity/differences could include: • Types of data collected by each questionnaire (qualitative vs quantitative data and/or likert scales vs yes or no responses) JDI is both qualitative and quantitative and Minnesota is just quanti with likert scales. QWL is quantitative as it also uses 1–5 scale • Ethics of questionnaire • Social desirability • Cultural bias • Appropriateness of questionnaire • Ease of use of questionnaire • Number of dimensions – Minnesota = 20, QWL = 8, JDI = 5 Any other appropriate similarity and/or difference. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will include one similarity and one difference. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will include one appropriate similarity in detail or one appropriate difference in detail. OR one similarity and one difference in less detail. • Candidates will provide a good explanation. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a similarity and/or difference. This could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 2

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work (e.g. intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, rewards). [8] (b) Evalua…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work 8 (e.g. intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, rewards). Motivators at work, including the following: • intrinsic and extrinsic motivation • types of rewards systems: pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, performance-related pay • non-monetary rewards: praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is where the employees work is driven by an internal desire to succeed in order to achieve internal goals. An employee may work hard in order to feel good about meeting a personal target. Extrinsic motivation is where the employees work is driven by a desire to have external goals met such as pay, promotion and bonuses. Types of rewards systems: pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, performance- related pay Pay is the amount given to an employee for their work. This could be paid hourly or on an annual salary. Some jobs involve receiving tips or benefits (e.g. use of the gym). Bonuses are given to employees at a certain time of year and are generally a recognition of hard work or achieving certain sales goals of the company. Many receive end of year bonuses as a percentage of the company profits. Profit sharing is where a company shares out its profits amongst all employees (this can be done on a sliding scale with those higher up the organisation receiving more of the profits). It is different to bonuses where a goal must be achieved first. Performance-related pay is where targets are set for a member of staff and in order to achieve a higher rate of pay these targets must be met within an agreed time frame. Targets can also be set for the whole team rather than each individual member of the team. Everyone’s pay is then linked to whether the team achieves their targets. All of the above can be linked to extrinsic motivation. 8(a) Non-monetary rewards: praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging These are not tangible but can make the employee feel better about their job and be more motivated to work hard. Praise can be both public and private. An employee may be thanked for their hard work in front of the rest of the staff. Respect is where the employee is treated with dignity and care by their employees. It could be via supporting an employee in a dispute with a customer or sending flowers when someone is in the hospital. Recognition is very similar to praise but could also involve a non-monetary reward of some sort. Many companies offer employee of the month or recognise employees when they get positive customer feedback. Empowerment is a feeling that an employee is trusted to do a job well without constant monitoring by their employers. This might involve working from home or being left to complete a project without excessive check ins from the employer. It could also be providing on the job training to help the employee be more effective or even get a promotion. Sense of belonging is feeling as an employee that you fit into the company and are valued by your employer as well as your co-workers. Many companies organise social events for their staff and may even sponsor various events and team building exercises. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work, 10 including a discussion of reductionism. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – reductionism (reductionist or holistic nature of theories about motivators at work). For example, the theory about intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is somewhat holistic as it believes that different things do motivate people (rather than just saying everyone is motivated by pay) however, it is more likely that we are motivated by a variety of factors in order to accomplish any task at work and some of these factors may motivate an employee quite a bit one day and motivate them less the next. This makes this theory more reductionist. • Deterministic or free-will nature of theories about motivators at work. These theories do suggest it is the employer who is providing the feelings of motivation at work (via pay or non-monetary rewards) and therefore this is what causes the motivation in the employee. It does not recognise individual differences and that some members of staff may be more motivated to work hard whether they get these external rewards or not. • Effectiveness and appropriateness of theories about motivators at work (including a discussion of cost) – Some of the motivators are very expensive for the company and others do not cost anything (such as praise, respect, etc.) it may be in the best interest of the company to evaluate whether their pay strategy is effective in motivating employees. They can also look into other non-monetary ways of motivating staff. This might involve training their senior staff on how to do effective praise, respect, etc. • Cultural bias/appropriateness of these theories about motivators at work. – Some of the theories are very Western in nature. The pay structures are Western. • individual/situational debate – the pay and extrinsic motivators are situational but intrinsic motivators and non-monetary can be individual as some individuals may be more internally motivated and more effected by things such as praise. • individual differences – intrinsic/extrinsic – recognises that different individuals may be motivated by different things. Pay assumes that everyone is motivated by pay in the same way and does not recognise individual differences. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 3

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about attitude…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work. 8 Attitudes to work, including the following: • workplace sabotage (Giacalone and Rosenfeld, 1987) • absenteeism (Blau and Boal, 1987) • measuring organisational commitment (Mowday et al., 1979) Workplace sabotage (Giacalone and Rosenfeld, 1987) Unionised factory workers rated reasons that would justify the use of sabotage. Those that did accept a variety of reasons for sabotage justified all forms except dishonesty. Absenteeism (Blau and Boal, 1987) Used job involvement and organisational commitment to see the effect of these on turnover and absenteeism. High involvement and commitment was predicted to have the lowest turnover and absenteeism due as they put a great deal of effort into their jobs and are highly valued by the organisation. Low involvement and low commitment were predicted to have the highest levels of turnover and absenteeism due to them not putting in much effort into their job and not valuing the organisation. In turn, these employees are not valued and would be easy for the organisation to replace. Measuring organisational commitment (Mowday et al., 1979) Developed the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) using 2563 employees from 9 different organisations. The paper explains how the questionnaire was developed as well as it having both internal and external reliability and validity in terms of its development and use. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work, 10 including a discussion on generalisations. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – Generalisability – the Giacalone and Rosenfeld study looked at unionised workers in a factory. This can only be generalised to this type of setting and these type of workers. It may be easier to sabotage at a factory where there is machinery than in an office environment. Blau and Boal is a theory about absenteeism so could be generalised to Western employees. Mowday studied 2563 individuals so very generalizable (in nine different organisations that cover a range). • qualitative and quantitative data with reference to the data collected in the research in this topic – Giacalone and Rosenfeld used qualitative data to collect results. Factory workers were asked to rate on scale. • Evaluation of methods use to collect data. – OCQ used by Mowday • Reliability • Validity – issues with questionnaire data. • Application to everyday life/usefulness of theories and evidence about attitudes to work. – can be used to help improve the attitudes of employees to work or at least identify to the company those employees they might have problems with in future. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 4

(a) Describe measures of job satisfaction used by psychologists. [8] (b) Evaluate measures of job satisfaction used by psychologists, inclu…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe measures of job satisfaction used by psychologists. 8 Could include the following: • Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1969) • Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) • Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1969) Questionnaire measures job satisfaction in experience of work, salary, promotion prospects, experience of supervision, experience of co- workers. Simply scale of yes, no, or can’t decide to each item. Is compared with standardised norms based on data from a large sample of people and updated regularly. Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) Long version contains 100 items and short version 20. Measures satisfaction with a range of aspects including company policies, scope for advancement, security, independence, recognition, responsibility, variety and working conditions. Uses a Likert scale. Original scale was very satisfied, satisfied, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, dissatisfied, very dissatisfied and changed because of skewed results to not satisfied, somewhat satisfied, satisfied, very satisfied, extremely satisfied. Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) Used to assess feelings employees have towards jobs, colleagues, and companies informing how these feelings affect organisational growth and profitability. Could also be seen to allow organisation to respond to employees’ needs. A range of factors assessed including job security, reward systems, pay levels, and opportunity for growth. Uses a Likert scale. Quite complex language used (e.g. remuneration, salubrity, polyvalence). 8 key components – Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate measures of job satisfaction used by psychologists, 10 including a discussion of self-reports. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – self-reports All give quantitative data, so easy to complete. Problems of social desirability bias. Language issue in QWL (as detailed above) so inaccessible to some employees. Problems of acquiescence bias with Likert scale. Concern about job future if participants answer ‘wrongly’. • Qualitative/quantitative data • Reductionist or holistic measure • Reliability • Usefulness/application to everyday life. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 5

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enlargement’ as a job design technique. [2] (b) Describe two of the four general methods of workplace sabotag…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enlargement’ as a job design technique. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: It increases the scope of the employee’s duties and they perform a wider variety of tasks during their working day. (1) This can be either horizontal where more tasks are given to the employee (1) or vertical which could be higher level jobs or more responsibility given to the employee. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe two of the four general methods of workplace sabotage 4 outlined by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Work slowdown (1), e.g. doing personal work on company time (1) Destruction of machinery, premises or products (1) – carving poetry on bathroom walls (1) Causing chaos (1) – setting up the foreman to get him/her in trouble (1) The above three are aimed at hurting the company. Dishonesty (1) – stealing This can hurt the company as well as achieve personal gains for the employees. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study by Giacalone and 6 Rosenfeld (1987) on workplace sabotage. Likely strengths include – • Strengths of quantitative data and self-reports, • Kept confidential – this could increase honesty in the responses • Useful to the company and similar companies to be aware of sabotage methods and to look for methods to reduce these in their organisation • Asked by non-supervisory personnel so may be more honest in their response Likely weaknesses include – • Lack of generalisability due to the study just using one factory and interviewing 38 of its employees • Just quantitative data collected • Although kept confidential the employees may not be honest about the sabotage methods used • Only former employees who could exaggerate the sabotage methods Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) • No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 6

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enlargement’ as a job design technique. [2] (b) Describe two of the four general methods of workplace sabotag…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enlargement’ as a job design technique. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: It increases the scope of the employee’s duties and they perform a wider variety of tasks during their working day. (1) This can be either horizontal where more tasks are given to the employee (1) or vertical which could be higher level jobs or more responsibility given to the employee. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe two of the four general methods of workplace sabotage 4 outlined by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Work slowdown (1), e.g. doing personal work on company time (1) Destruction of machinery, premises or products (1) – carving poetry on bathroom walls (1) Causing chaos (1) – setting up the foreman to get him/her in trouble (1) The above three are aimed at hurting the company. Dishonesty (1) – stealing This can hurt the company as well as achieve personal gains for the employees. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the study by Giacalone and 6 Rosenfeld (1987) on workplace sabotage. Likely strengths include – • Strengths of quantitative data and self-reports, • Kept confidential – this could increase honesty in the responses • Useful to the company and similar companies to be aware of sabotage methods and to look for methods to reduce these in their organisation • Asked by non-supervisory personnel so may be more honest in their response Likely weaknesses include – • Lack of generalisability due to the study just using one factory and interviewing 38 of its employees • Just quantitative data collected • Although kept confidential the employees may not be honest about the sabotage methods used • Only former employees who could exaggerate the sabotage methods Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) • No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 7

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to work. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories 8 about motivation to work. Cognitive theories about motivation to work, including the following: 1. Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) 2. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) 3. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) They showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and people's performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. To motivate, goals must have – 1. Clarity – measureable and unambiguous. 2. Challenge – challenging enough to feel a sense of achievement when accomplished. 3. Commitment – goals are understood and agreed upon with the employee 4. Feedback – feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition. 5. Task complexity – the employee should be capable of completing the task set. In addition, give sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance and provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required for success. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) This theory suggests how the actions and behaviours of individuals are done to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Individuals are therefore more likely to be motivated to do certain acts, if they expect that rewards can be obtained, and that these rewards can be obtained without too much trouble and pain. Valence Valence is the strength of preference for obtaining a particular outcome. Valence will be positive when the individual prefers to attain some outcome to not attaining it. If the individual is indifferent, valence will be zero. Great valence will therefore strengthen e.g. an employee's motivation for attaining a particular outcome, which makes it important for managers and employers to discover what is valued by the employees. If an extrinsic factor, such as recognition, is seen as a valuable outcome by an employee, managers may use this information to motivate his/her employee. Instrumentality Instrumentality refers to the belief that doing a task will result in the attainment of some valued reward. If instrumentality is high, an employee believes that certain actions will result in the attainment of the rewards valued by him/her. Instrumentality refers to the importance of that e.g. employees see a clear path to rewards and goal attainment, and that they trust that managers will reward their actions as promised. If recognition is seen as valuable by an employee, the manager must thus assure that the employee believes that he/she will get this reward, if the task is accomplished satisfactorily. 8(a) Expectancy Expectancy relates to the confidence have in themselves in accomplishing a certain task or assignment satisfactorily. If the individual does not regard himself as competent enough to do a certain job, the individual will not see it as feasible to get the desired rewards, and hence demotivate the employee. According to Vroom, the strength of motivation to perform a certain task can be calculated using this formula: Motivation = Valence × Expectancy × Instrumentality Managers can use the VIE-model accordingly: Firstly, managers have to find out which rewards the employees want, and which rewards are seen as valuable by the employees (valence). Secondly, managers have to create instrumentality, in which managers must convince the employees about that the accomplishments of certain tasks, will generate the rewards valued by the employees. Thirdly, managers must ensure that the employees have the necessary capabilities to accomplish the given task, so that the employees expect that they will be able to accomplish it, and thus get rewarded. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) ‘Equity Theory focuses upon a person's perceptions of fairness with respect to a relationship. During a social exchange, an individual assesses the ratio of what is output from the relationship to what is input in the relationship, and also the ratio of what the other person in the relationship outputs from the relationship to what is input into the relationship. Equity Theory posits that if the person perceives that there is inequality, where either their output/input ratio is less than or greater than what they perceive as the output/input ratio of the other person in the relationship, then the person is likely to be distressed.’ – Adams. For organisations this is where an employee/employer judges the employees net worth to the company and whether they are equal to the other employees in the same company. They will judge their input to the company and also what they receive for this input in return. In addition, they will compare this judgement to the other employees of the company. If they perceive they are putting in more than they are getting out in comparison to the others in the organisation, the employee will not feel motivated as if the opposite were true. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories 10 about motivation to work, including a discussion about determinism. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – determinism. For all three theories, motivation of an employee is due to their own free will. The involvement of the employer in this motivation with incentives, targets, etc. and can help to motivate, but it is down to the employee if they feel motivated or not. − Locke and Latham is somewhat deterministic as it is often the employer who sets the targets and it can be out of the control of the employee. However, many organisations do involve the employee in setting the targets and making sure they are specific for that individual. − VIE theory is less deterministic as it is the employee’s choice about what they find maximises their pleasure and minimises their pain. Once this is discovered by the employer, however, they can put things in place (e.g. pay, conditions of service, etc.) that would be likely to benefit the employee and this is therefore more deterministic as it is causing the motivation of the employee. − Similar to VIE theory the equity theory also involves the free will of the employee as they are judging for themselves whether they feel their contribution is equivalent to the other employees in the company. • Cultural bias of cognitive theories of motivation to work. • Any appropriate evaluation issue of evidence of which leadership style theory is based (no requirement to evaluate any evidence in this response). • Reductionist nature of theory. • Individual/situational debate. • Applications to everyday life. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 8

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to work. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories 8 about motivation to work. Cognitive theories about motivation to work, including the following: 1. Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) 2. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) 3. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) They showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and people's performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. To motivate, goals must have – 1. Clarity – measureable and unambiguous. 2. Challenge – challenging enough to feel a sense of achievement when accomplished. 3. Commitment – goals are understood and agreed upon with the employee 4. Feedback – feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition. 5. Task complexity – the employee should be capable of completing the task set. In addition, give sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance and provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required for success. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) This theory suggests how the actions and behaviours of individuals are done to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Individuals are therefore more likely to be motivated to do certain acts, if they expect that rewards can be obtained, and that these rewards can be obtained without too much trouble and pain. Valence Valence is the strength of preference for obtaining a particular outcome. Valence will be positive when the individual prefers to attain some outcome to not attaining it. If the individual is indifferent, valence will be zero. Great valence will therefore strengthen e.g. an employee's motivation for attaining a particular outcome, which makes it important for managers and employers to discover what is valued by the employees. If an extrinsic factor, such as recognition, is seen as a valuable outcome by an employee, managers may use this information to motivate his/her employee. Instrumentality Instrumentality refers to the belief that doing a task will result in the attainment of some valued reward. If instrumentality is high, an employee believes that certain actions will result in the attainment of the rewards valued by him/her. Instrumentality refers to the importance of that e.g. employees see a clear path to rewards and goal attainment, and that they trust that managers will reward their actions as promised. If recognition is seen as valuable by an employee, the manager must thus assure that the employee believes that he/she will get this reward, if the task is accomplished satisfactorily. 8(a) Expectancy Expectancy relates to the confidence have in themselves in accomplishing a certain task or assignment satisfactorily. If the individual does not regard himself as competent enough to do a certain job, the individual will not see it as feasible to get the desired rewards, and hence demotivate the employee. According to Vroom, the strength of motivation to perform a certain task can be calculated using this formula: Motivation = Valence × Expectancy × Instrumentality Managers can use the VIE-model accordingly: Firstly, managers have to find out which rewards the employees want, and which rewards are seen as valuable by the employees (valence). Secondly, managers have to create instrumentality, in which managers must convince the employees about that the accomplishments of certain tasks, will generate the rewards valued by the employees. Thirdly, managers must ensure that the employees have the necessary capabilities to accomplish the given task, so that the employees expect that they will be able to accomplish it, and thus get rewarded. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) ‘Equity Theory focuses upon a person's perceptions of fairness with respect to a relationship. During a social exchange, an individual assesses the ratio of what is output from the relationship to what is input in the relationship, and also the ratio of what the other person in the relationship outputs from the relationship to what is input into the relationship. Equity Theory posits that if the person perceives that there is inequality, where either their output/input ratio is less than or greater than what they perceive as the output/input ratio of the other person in the relationship, then the person is likely to be distressed.’ – Adams. For organisations this is where an employee/employer judges the employees net worth to the company and whether they are equal to the other employees in the same company. They will judge their input to the company and also what they receive for this input in return. In addition, they will compare this judgement to the other employees of the company. If they perceive they are putting in more than they are getting out in comparison to the others in the organisation, the employee will not feel motivated as if the opposite were true. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories 10 about motivation to work, including a discussion about determinism. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – determinism. For all three theories, motivation of an employee is due to their own free will. The involvement of the employer in this motivation with incentives, targets, etc. and can help to motivate, but it is down to the employee if they feel motivated or not. − Locke and Latham is somewhat deterministic as it is often the employer who sets the targets and it can be out of the control of the employee. However, many organisations do involve the employee in setting the targets and making sure they are specific for that individual. − VIE theory is less deterministic as it is the employee’s choice about what they find maximises their pleasure and minimises their pain. Once this is discovered by the employer, however, they can put things in place (e.g. pay, conditions of service, etc.) that would be likely to benefit the employee and this is therefore more deterministic as it is causing the motivation of the employee. − Similar to VIE theory the equity theory also involves the free will of the employee as they are judging for themselves whether they feel their contribution is equivalent to the other employees in the company. • Cultural bias of cognitive theories of motivation to work. • Any appropriate evaluation issue of evidence of which leadership style theory is based (no requirement to evaluate any evidence in this response). • Reductionist nature of theory. • Individual/situational debate. • Applications to everyday life. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 9

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to work. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories 8 about motivation to work. Cognitive theories about motivation to work, including the following: 1. Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) 2. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) 3. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) They showed that there was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and people's performance of a task. He found that specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. To motivate, goals must have – 1. Clarity – measureable and unambiguous. 2. Challenge – challenging enough to feel a sense of achievement when accomplished. 3. Commitment – goals are understood and agreed upon with the employee 4. Feedback – feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition. 5. Task complexity – the employee should be capable of completing the task set. In addition, give sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance and provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required for success. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) This theory suggests how the actions and behaviours of individuals are done to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Individuals are therefore more likely to be motivated to do certain acts, if they expect that rewards can be obtained, and that these rewards can be obtained without too much trouble and pain. Valence Valence is the strength of preference for obtaining a particular outcome. Valence will be positive when the individual prefers to attain some outcome to not attaining it. If the individual is indifferent, valence will be zero. Great valence will therefore strengthen e.g. an employee's motivation for attaining a particular outcome, which makes it important for managers and employers to discover what is valued by the employees. If an extrinsic factor, such as recognition, is seen as a valuable outcome by an employee, managers may use this information to motivate his/her employee. Instrumentality Instrumentality refers to the belief that doing a task will result in the attainment of some valued reward. If instrumentality is high, an employee believes that certain actions will result in the attainment of the rewards valued by him/her. Instrumentality refers to the importance of that e.g. employees see a clear path to rewards and goal attainment, and that they trust that managers will reward their actions as promised. If recognition is seen as valuable by an employee, the manager must thus assure that the employee believes that he/she will get this reward, if the task is accomplished satisfactorily. 8(a) Expectancy Expectancy relates to the confidence have in themselves in accomplishing a certain task or assignment satisfactorily. If the individual does not regard himself as competent enough to do a certain job, the individual will not see it as feasible to get the desired rewards, and hence demotivate the employee. According to Vroom, the strength of motivation to perform a certain task can be calculated using this formula: Motivation = Valence × Expectancy × Instrumentality Managers can use the VIE-model accordingly: Firstly, managers have to find out which rewards the employees want, and which rewards are seen as valuable by the employees (valence). Secondly, managers have to create instrumentality, in which managers must convince the employees about that the accomplishments of certain tasks, will generate the rewards valued by the employees. Thirdly, managers must ensure that the employees have the necessary capabilities to accomplish the given task, so that the employees expect that they will be able to accomplish it, and thus get rewarded. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) ‘Equity Theory focuses upon a person's perceptions of fairness with respect to a relationship. During a social exchange, an individual assesses the ratio of what is output from the relationship to what is input in the relationship, and also the ratio of what the other person in the relationship outputs from the relationship to what is input into the relationship. Equity Theory posits that if the person perceives that there is inequality, where either their output/input ratio is less than or greater than what they perceive as the output/input ratio of the other person in the relationship, then the person is likely to be distressed.’ – Adams. For organisations this is where an employee/employer judges the employees net worth to the company and whether they are equal to the other employees in the same company. They will judge their input to the company and also what they receive for this input in return. In addition, they will compare this judgement to the other employees of the company. If they perceive they are putting in more than they are getting out in comparison to the others in the organisation, the employee will not feel motivated as if the opposite were true. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories 10 about motivation to work, including a discussion about determinism. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – determinism. For all three theories, motivation of an employee is due to their own free will. The involvement of the employer in this motivation with incentives, targets, etc. and can help to motivate, but it is down to the employee if they feel motivated or not. − Locke and Latham is somewhat deterministic as it is often the employer who sets the targets and it can be out of the control of the employee. However, many organisations do involve the employee in setting the targets and making sure they are specific for that individual. − VIE theory is less deterministic as it is the employee’s choice about what they find maximises their pleasure and minimises their pain. Once this is discovered by the employer, however, they can put things in place (e.g. pay, conditions of service, etc.) that would be likely to benefit the employee and this is therefore more deterministic as it is causing the motivation of the employee. − Similar to VIE theory the equity theory also involves the free will of the employee as they are judging for themselves whether they feel their contribution is equivalent to the other employees in the company. • Cultural bias of cognitive theories of motivation to work. • Any appropriate evaluation issue of evidence of which leadership style theory is based (no requirement to evaluate any evidence in this response). • Reductionist nature of theory. • Individual/situational debate. • Applications to everyday life. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 10

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘job satisfaction’. [2] (b) Describe the quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974). [4] (c) D…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘job satisfaction’. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: This is how an employee feels about their job (1). If they feel content with all aspects of their work including the conditions, hours, type of work done, supervision, responsibilities, etc. (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe the quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 4 1974). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Used to assess feelings employees have towards jobs, colleagues, and company (1) informing how these feelings affect organisational growth and profitability (1). Answered the questionnaire on the basis of the last 2 weeks (1). Eight key components analysed (1) including range of factors assessed including job security (1), reward systems (1), pay levels, and opportunity for growth. Uses a Likert scale (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Discuss the use of self-reports to measure job satisfaction. 6 Discussion points could include • All give quantitative data, so easy to complete and make comparisons between groups of workers/individuals. • Problems of social desirability bias. Language issue in QWL so inaccessible to some employees. Problems of acquiescence bias with Likert scale. Concern about job future if participants answer ‘wrongly’. • Holistic approach as questionnaires ask a number of questions about different areas of work that could affect job satisfaction. • Social desirability as the employee may want their employer to think they are satisfied with their job in order to avoid ‘getting into trouble’. • Reliability – as MSQ and JDI are self-report measures these can be replicated. • Validity – Both test a wide variety of measures of satisfaction at work and are more likely to be valid. • Practical applications to the organisation as can be used to measure satisfaction of various workers to make comparisons. Could be used after changes have been made to an organisation to improve satisfaction to compare the scores to see if the change has worked and satisfaction has increased. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss at least two points regarding self-reports. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one point about self-reports in detail or two or more in less detail. • Candidates will provide a good explanation. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 11

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘extrinsic motivation’ in relation to work. [2] (b) Describe how employees can be motivated by two monetary re…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘extrinsic motivation’ in relation to work. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: This is where an employee is motivated by factors outside of themselves in order to do various work tasks. (1) For example, employees might be motivated by their pay, work conditions, how well they get on with their manager, type of tasks asked to do, etc. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe how employees can be motivated by two monetary reward 4 systems. Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Pay is receiving money for the work completed. (1) This will motivate employees to work hard to receive their pay. (1) Some companies may reduce pay if the employee damages company property or loses a piece of equipment. (1) This will motivate the employee to be careful at work. (1) Bonuses – the employee may receive a bonus as a percentage of profits overall (1) or the profits from a particular project they were involved with. (1) This may motivate the employee to work hard on special projects to receive a higher bonus. (1) Profit-sharing can involve giving shares to an employee and they can then receive dividends of the company’s profit. (1) The employee may feel more involved with the company as they own shares and are therefore more motivated to work hard to get a higher dividend each time these are paid out. (1) Performance-related pay may be awarded to employee after a thorough review of their work. (1) This will motivate employees to work hard to make sure their review is good and they receive their PRP. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. Question Answer Marks 7(c) For one of the monetary reward systems you referred to in (b): 6 Explain one strength and one weakness of this reward system for an organisation. Likely strengths include: • Company has control over how much they give to their employees. If they find that a certain type of reward system is successful and employees are working harder they will likely continue to use this type of system. • Bonuses and performance related pay do not have to be very expensive (although should be competitive). • The pay system can be explained when the employee starts to work for the company and targets can be set so the employee achieves their goals. As a result of this, the company should find the employee is very motivated to work hard in order to receive the monetary reward. • Evidence to support the use of monetary rewards (e.g. de Waal and Jansen, 2011; Hollowell, 2005). Likely weaknesses include: • Ignores the importance of other external factors that could motivate employees, such as good staff-management relationships, varied tasks to perform. Also ignores internal factors. • If some employees are not that motivated by pay, the management of the company may find they do not work very hard or well. • Can be expensive if the company judges all employees to be deserving of this year’s bonus, profit share, etc. • Hard to tell if the monetary rewards are successful in improving productivity or whether these improvements are caused by other factors. • Evidence that shows monetary rewards are not always effective (e.g. de Waal and Jansen, Bloom). Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited Question Answer Marks

Question 12

(a) Describe theories of job satisfaction. [8] (b) Evaluate theories of job satisfaction, including a discussion about determinism. [10]

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe theories of job satisfaction. 8 Theories of job satisfaction, including the following: • two factor theory (Herzberg, 1959) • job characteristics theory (Hackman and Oldham, 1976) • techniques of job design: enrichment, rotation and enlargement Two factor theory (Herzberg, 1959) Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are independent of each other. Some factors in the job cause satisfaction while other, different factors can cause dissatisfaction. Herzberg surveyed 200 workers at a factor in Pittsburgh, USA. Qualitative data was collected to find out what they found good and bad about their job. From this he developed the theory that there are two main factors at work – Motivators – content of job (recognition, content of work, advancement, responsibility, etc.) and Hygienes – need to be present to achieve job satisfaction, e.g. level of supervision, job security, salary, working conditions, etc.) In order to remove dissatisfaction hygiene factors must be met, e.g. pay a good wage. Then motivating factors must be dealt with (e.g. make promotions available to staff, give more responsibility, etc.). Job characteristics theory (Hackman and Oldham, 1976) Core job characteristics that will appeal to workers and improve job satisfaction include: • Skill variety • Task identity • Autonomy • Task significance • Feedback. These together bring about three psychological states about the work. Experience meaningfulness at work, have knowledge of the result of their work in order to enable the worker to grow and develop in their job and experience responsibility over their work. Techniques of job design: enrichment, rotation and enlargement These can allow for increased satisfaction at work. Enrichment – Redesigning the job to make it more challenging and interesting for the employee. These will usually involve more skills and a higher level of responsibility. They will feel more in control of their job and this should lead to greater satisfaction at work. Rotation – Change the tasks the workers are expected to do in their job on a regular basis. Employees could rotate around jobs within the same work environment (e.g. within a factor, kitchen or office) or they could move between departments for even more variety. This will build the skills of the worker and make them more useful to the company who could make use of these skills as and when required. Question Answer Marks 8(a) Enlargement – This increases the tasks of a particular job. It increases the scope of the employee’s duties and they perform a wider variety of tasks during their working day. This can be either horizontal where more tasks are given to the employee or vertical which could be higher-level jobs or more responsibility given to the employee. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate theories of job satisfaction, including a discussion about 10 determinism. • Named issue – determinism – These three theories are mainly deterministic. They suggest that the worker’s satisfaction can be directly influenced by the practices of the organisation. This suggests the workers do not have much free will over whether they are satisfied with their jobs. It ignores individual differences that some people like their jobs and find most types of employment satisfying while others dislike work and it would be very difficult for an organisation to make it satisfying for this type of person. A range of other issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Generalisability • Effectiveness and appropriateness of theories of job satisfaction • Any appropriate evaluation issue of evidence which supports the theories of job satisfaction • Reductionism • Individual/situational debate. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 13

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about attitude…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work. 8 Attitudes to work, including the following: • workplace sabotage (Giacalone and Rosenfeld, 1987) • absenteeism (Blau and Boal, 1987) • measuring organisational commitment (Mowday et al., 1979) Workplace sabotage (Giacalone and Rosenfeld, 1987) 38 unionised factory workers in an electrical factory rated reasons that would justify the use of sabotage. Given list of sabotage methods and asked to rate them on a scale of 1–7 (totally justifiable). High-reason acceptors justified production slowdowns more than low-reason acceptors. High- reason acceptors also justified destruction (machinery, premises, etc.) more than low-reason. All (high and low) did accept a variety of reasons for sabotage justified all forms except dishonesty. Methods of sabotage included slowdowns, destructiveness, dishonesty and causing chaos. Absenteeism (Blau and Boal, 1987) Used job involvement and organisational commitment to see the effect of these on turnover and absenteeism. High involvement and commitment was predicted to have the lowest turnover and absenteeism due as they put a great deal of effort into their jobs and are highly valued by the organisation. Low involvement and low commitment were predicted to have the highest levels of turnover and absenteeism due to them not putting in much effort into their job and not valuing the organisation. In turn, these employees are not valued and would be easy for the organisation to replace. Measuring organisational commitment (Mowday et al., 1979) Developed the 15 item Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) using 2563 employees from 9 different organisations. The paper explains how the questionnaire was developed as well as it having both internal and external reliability and validity in terms of its development and use. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work, 10 including a discussion of practical applications. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – practical applications Can be used to help improve the attitudes of employees to work or at least identify to the company those employees they might have problems with in future via the OCQ. Can identify if involvement is high or low and work with the employee to help them to feel more involved in the organisation and therefore reduce absenteeism and turnover. Can identify high acceptors of sabotage and work with these employees to help make them low acceptors. Can alert companies to the possibility that all employees may be dishonest as this was seen as acceptable form of sabotage. • Qualitative and quantitative data with reference to the data collected. • Evaluation of methods use to collect data. • Reliability • Validity • Generalisability Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 14

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘empowerment’ as a motivator at work. [2] (b) Describe how ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972) explains motivation at …

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘empowerment’ as a motivator at work. 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: The employee is given some autonomy to work independently in their job.(1) Due to feeling trusted to complete the work, the employee will feel more motivated to work hard and complete the job to a high standard. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe how ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972) explains motivation at work. 4 Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: Three needs identified – existence, relatedness and growth. Existence are the survival needs – physiological and safety. At work this could be met via providing healthy meals and having a bullying policy so the employee feels healthy/safe and will feel motivated as these needs have been met. Relatedness – social and self-esteem needs. This could be met at work by providing praising staff and having work social events so the employee feels good about their work and will likely work harder. Growth – self-development and advancement. Provided at work via clear progression/development so the employee feels that hard work will lead to a better job and are therefore motivated. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of ERG theory. 6 Likely strengths include – • Good practical applications as the theory suggests the needs of workers and therefore employers can meet these needs. For example, they can provide regular feedback on work, provide healthy food in the staff catering facilities, take action on complaints from staff to do with bullying, etc. • Increased productivity/motivation of workers by meeting needs leading to higher profits. • Some needs are inexpensive to meet (e.g. praising workers). • Not a hierarchical theory – therefore the 3 needs are considered of equal importance. Likely weaknesses include – • Difficult for the employer to know if these needs are being met outside of work. E.g. difficult to know the level of need required – is an employee having their development needs met via charity work they do outside of work • Temporal validity as the theory was developed in 1972 and the world of work has changed considerably since the early 70s. For example, in some countries there is more part-time work and people change jobs more frequently. • May be difficult to apply this theory across all types of jobs (factory workers compared to the Director of a company) and all types of business (manufacturing compared to a marketing company). Small businesses may not be able to give their workers the opportunity to get promoted. • Some needs are expensive to meet (e.g. providing meals) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will discuss one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will discuss one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a discussion of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 15

(a) Outline the two factor theory of job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1959). [2] (b) Describe the job descriptive index (JDI) developed by Smith…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Outline the two factor theory of job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1959). 2 Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: Hertzberg proposed that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are independent of each other (it is not a continuum). (1) Motivators have to present to be satisfied in a job, for example, recognition, growth, level of responsibility or advancement. (1) Hygienes have to be negative or absent for job dissatisfaction to occur, for example, company policies, level of supervision, working conditions, salary, and interpersonal relations. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe the job descriptive index (JDI) developed by Smith et al. 4 (1969). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: A self-report questionnaire used to measure job satisfaction on 5 dimensions. (1) The dimensions are job, supervision, pay, promotions, and co-workers. (up to 2 marks) Examples of statements include ‘Think of the pay you get. How well does each of the following words describe your present pay? Income adequate for normal expenses, Insecure, less than I deserve’ or ‘Think of your job in general. All in all, what is it like most of the time? Undesirable, better than most, rotten’. (up to 2 marks for examples of statements) Next to each of the words/answers is a blank space where the individual writes Y for ‘yes’, N for ‘no’ or ‘?’ if they cannot decide. (1) Each item has a score associated with it so a numerical total can be summed for job satisfaction in any number of the 5 dimensions. (1) Compared to standardised norms (based on job type, age, gender, education and ‘community prosperity. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one similarity and one difference between the JDI and the 6 quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974). Likely similarities will be • Both measure job satisfaction in a number of different dimensions (5 for job descriptive index and 8 for QWL) • Both specifically measure satisfaction with pay/salary, opportunities (for promotion), and views on colleagues. • Both collect quantitative data only • Both end up with a numerical score for various dimensions and overall job satisfaction • Both useful in application Likely differences will be • Job descriptive index has 5 dimensions (detailed in 7(b)), QWL has 8 (salary, working conditions, use of capacities at work, opportunities for work, social integration at work, respecting the laws and rules at work, space work occupies in their life, and social relevance and importance of work). • Job descriptive index has each item scored using fixed choice (Y/N or ?), QWL uses 5 statement Likert scale (very dissatisfied to very satisfied) – therefore the QWL allows the employee to say the degree of their agreement. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will explain an appropriate similarity and an appropriate difference. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will explain an appropriate similarity/difference in detail or both a similarity and a difference in less detail. • Candidates will provide a good explanation. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt a similarity and/or difference. This could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 16

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enrichment’ as a job design technique. [2] (b) Describe the study on workplace sabotage by Giacalone and Rose…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enrichment’ as a job design technique. Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: Redesigning the job to make it more challenging and interesting for the employee. (1) These will usually involve more skills (1) and a higher level of responsibility. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe the study on workplace sabotage by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: 38 Unionised factory workers in an electrical factory volunteered (1) and rated reasons that would justify the use of sabotage. (1) Given list of 29 sabotage methods (1) and asked to rate them on a scale of 1–7 (totally justifiable) (1) High- reason acceptors justified production slowdowns more than low-reason acceptors. (1) High-reason acceptors also justified destruction (machinery, premises, etc.) more than low-reason. (1) All (high and low) did accept a variety of reasons for sabotage justified all forms except dishonesty. (1) Methods of sabotage included slowdowns, destructiveness, dishonesty and causing chaos. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 4 Question Answer Marks 7(c) Explain two weaknesses of the study by Giacalone and Rosenfeld. Likely weaknesses include –  Generalisability (38 Unionised factory workers in an electrical factory)  Quantitative data collected so does not give the reasons for the worker’s response.  Reasons for sabotage and types of sabotage were created by an ex-employee. The reasons may have changed since the employee left the factory or this employee may not have been aware of all of the reasons for sabotage. Lowers validity  A split was done at the median point to create the two groups – those closest to this median point may not have been high-reason or low-reason acceptors. Lowers validity. Reductionist management of the individual’s disorder.  Self report measure so could suffer from social desirability. The workers may have been concerned about who would see their responses and may not have been entirely honest about whether they think the types/reasons for sabotage are justified. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks)  Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will explain two weaknesses.  Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks)  Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will explain one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR two weaknesses in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks)  Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt an explanation of a weakness. They could include two weaknesses both but just as an attempt.  Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 6

Question 17

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enrichment’ as a job design technique. [2] (b) Describe the study on workplace sabotage by Giacalone and Rose…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘enrichment’ as a job design technique. Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: Redesigning the job to make it more challenging and interesting for the employee. (1) These will usually involve more skills (1) and a higher level of responsibility. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe the study on workplace sabotage by Giacalone and Rosenfeld (1987). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: 38 Unionised factory workers in an electrical factory volunteered (1) and rated reasons that would justify the use of sabotage. (1) Given list of 29 sabotage methods (1) and asked to rate them on a scale of 1–7 (totally justifiable) (1) High- reason acceptors justified production slowdowns more than low-reason acceptors. (1) High-reason acceptors also justified destruction (machinery, premises, etc.) more than low-reason. (1) All (high and low) did accept a variety of reasons for sabotage justified all forms except dishonesty. (1) Methods of sabotage included slowdowns, destructiveness, dishonesty and causing chaos. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 4 Question Answer Marks 7(c) Explain two weaknesses of the study by Giacalone and Rosenfeld. Likely weaknesses include –  Generalisability (38 Unionised factory workers in an electrical factory)  Quantitative data collected so does not give the reasons for the worker’s response.  Reasons for sabotage and types of sabotage were created by an ex-employee. The reasons may have changed since the employee left the factory or this employee may not have been aware of all of the reasons for sabotage. Lowers validity  A split was done at the median point to create the two groups – those closest to this median point may not have been high-reason or low-reason acceptors. Lowers validity. Reductionist management of the individual’s disorder.  Self report measure so could suffer from social desirability. The workers may have been concerned about who would see their responses and may not have been entirely honest about whether they think the types/reasons for sabotage are justified. Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks)  Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will explain two weaknesses.  Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks)  Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will explain one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR two weaknesses in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks)  Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt an explanation of a weakness. They could include two weaknesses both but just as an attempt.  Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 6

Question 18

(a) Give the equation proposed by Vroom (1964) to calculate motivation. [2] (b) Outline two non-monetary rewards that are motivators at wor…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Give the equation proposed by Vroom (1964) to calculate motivation. 2 Award 1 mark for partially correct (e.g. one term incorrect or omitted). Award 2 marks for fully correct. Motivation = expectancy  instrumentality  valence. 7(b) Outline two non-monetary rewards that are motivators at work. 4 Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: • Praise for completing a good job or making an effort as this makes the employee feel good • Recognition (more of an acknowledgment than praise) e.g. ‘I noticed that you stayed late on Tuesday and I appreciate that’ will also make the employee feel valued • Respect e.g. employer suggests someone else seeks advice from employee. This makes them feel valued • Empowerment such as achieving a difficult task (or even just finishing a task), making employee feel important, more skilled or more competent • Token reward such as letter of commendation or ‘employee of the week’ which makes the employee feel valued and recognised Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of using non-monetary 6 rewards as motivators at work. Likely strengths: • No financial outlay for the organisation so reducing potential costs for increased output • Non-monetary rewards tend to be more motivating as employee feels that they have greater responsibility in achievement • Employer is likely to get to know workforce better as they see what their workers do, which should improve relationships Likely weaknesses: • Individual differences as some may feel more or less valued or motivated by non-monetary reward than others • Some jobs can be difficult to find non-monetary rewards for e.g. factory workers are unlikely to feel empowered if their job is monotonous • Employer often needs to go out of their way to find something to praise or recognise, which can be time-consuming • Employer could be seen as more intrusive and less trusting if they are closely monitoring employee in the hope of finding work to praise Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will explain one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will explain one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR • one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt an explanation of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 19

(a) Explain what is meant by ‘organisational commitment’, e.g. Mowday et al. (1979). [2] (b) Outline two hygiene factors identified by Herz…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Explain what is meant by ‘organisational commitment’, e.g. Mowday et 2 al. (1979). Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the term/concept. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the term/concept. For example: Organisational commitment involves an active relationship with the organisation so that the person concerned is willing to give something of themselves in order to contribute to that organisation’s well-being (1). It can be characterised by at least 3 related factors: a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values (1); a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation (1); and a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Outline two hygiene factors identified by Herzberg (1959) in the two- 4 factor theory of job satisfaction. For each correctly identified factor, award 1 mark for a basic answer (e.g. naming) and award 2 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. Background: The two-factor theory says that there are separate factors causing job satisfaction as opposed to job dissatisfaction. The ‘satisfiers’ are motivational factors and the ‘dis-satisfiers’ are the hygiene factors. Hygiene factors include: • Salary – pay should be equal and competitive to those in same industry in comparable role as well as appropriate and reasonable • Job security – permanent contract or risk of unemployment is low • Company policies – policies should include dress code, breaks, flexible working hours, vacation etc. and be clear and fair • Fringe benefits – company should be offering healthcare, benefits for family members, paid holidays, insurance, etc. • Physical working conditions – Any machinery or equipment must be well maintained. Conditions should be safe, hygienic and clean • Interpersonal relations – no conflict or bullying. The relationships between employee with peers, superiors and subordinates should be acceptable and appropriate Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of the two-factor theory of job 6 satisfaction. Strengths could include: • Theory based on research by Herzberg. He carried out over 200 interviews with engineers and accountants in the Pittsburg area, asking them to describe when they were satisfied (or dis-satisfied) at work and found the reasons given for satisfaction and dis-satisfaction were different rather than on a continuum • Useful as it tells organisations what things they could change – either increase in the case of motivational factors or address in the case of hygiene factors to increase job satisfaction (which could well improve performance, productivity and reduce employee turnover) • Quite comprehensive as it recognises that some organisations will be able to motivate more than others or where hygiene factors are more important than in others, so adding to variety • Ground-breaking in its time. It had previously been assumed that the factors leading to job satisfaction or dis-satisfaction were the same and lay on a continuum with satisfaction at one end and dis-satisfaction at the other end e.g. high pay is satisfying and low pay is dis-satisfying • It does recognise a large number of both motivational factors and hygiene factors that, although they may not all apply to every organisation, some will certainly apply to the vast majority of organisations • Recognises that workplaces do want employees who are satisfied with their job. This leads to workers feeling valued Weakness could include: • Subsequent research has failed to replicate Herzberg’s findings on which he based his theory so it lacks (temporal) validity or generalisability • In some organisations it may be very challenging to address hygiene and motivational factors and could potentially prove very costly particularly with managers who do not value satisfaction in their workers or believe that satisfaction is unachievable • May be culturally biased and lack generalisability because standards of living in an area may lead to a situation where people live hand-to- mouth and job satisfaction is a luxury that cannot be afforded • May not account for individual differences. People could be motivated differently depending on need. For some, for example, high pay does make work satisfying and is motivating because they are the only one bringing money into a household. For a more affluent person pay is a hygiene factor as Herzberg predicts • Weaknesses of Hertzberg’s study – interviews of 200 engineers and accountants (e.g. generalisability / social desirability) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will explain one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. 7(c) Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will explain one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR • one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt an explanation of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 20

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about need theories (hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, achievement motivation). [8] (b) Evalu…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about need theories 8 (hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, achievement motivation). Need theories, including: • Hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1970) • ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972) • Achievement motivation (McClelland, 1965) Hierarchy of needs – Maslow Maslow’s theory proposes a hierarchy with the most basic needs of an individual at the bottom and gradually becoming more complex as the hierarchy is climbed. Originally proposed as a five-tier hierarchy it was further expanded to 7 and then 8 levels (as illustrated). In the original model: 1 Physiological (survival) – food, drink, warmth, shelter etc. 2 Safety – security and protection from harm; a need for law and order 3 Social – need for relationships, affection and family 4 Esteem – need for achievement, mastery and status 5 Self-actualisation – realising potential and fulfilment In order to progress to higher levels, Maslow believed the more basic needs had to be satisfied. Workers have to have their physiological needs met before they can progress to the next level of the pyramid. The additional needs added: • Cognitive – having knowledge and understanding • Aesthetic – appreciation for art, music, beauty • Transcendent – helping other to self-actualise ERG theory – Aldefer (1972) Essentially a reorganisation of Maslow’s hierarchy into three simpler categories: E – Existence needs which are need for the basic material necessities of life. Encompasses Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. R – Relatedness needs – the need for an ability to maintain relationships both in work and in private. Encompasses Maslow’s social and esteem needs. G – Growth needs – the need for self-development and advancement. Encompasses Maslow’s self-actualisation. ERG is not a hierarchy and workers can be motivated by more than one category at a time. Relative importance of needs may change over time depending on factors such as lifestyle, relationships and family. 8(a) Achievement motivation – McClelland McClelland asserted that we have 3 work-related needs. All workers need: 1 Achievement – the desire to get a job done, master tasks and be successful. We want to be able to achieve on the basis of hard work rather than luck 2 Affiliation – the desire to be accepted and liked by others. Effort is employed to create and maintain friendships and relationships 3 Power – the desire to influence others’ lives as well as in the control of others. The need for discipline is important Like ERG theory, achievement motivation is not a hierarchy. McClelland asserted that good managers have the need for power, not necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for affiliation. Need for affiliation can be measured using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). These are a series of ambiguous images that an individual is asked to interpret. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about need theories 10 (hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, achievement motivation), including a discussion of determinism versus free-will. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – determinism versus free will: Maslow’s hierarchy was born out of the humanistic approach in psychology. This approach is the least deterministic of all approaches and so free will should be an essential principle. However, the hierarchy of needs appears to have deterministic elements. For example, the fulfilment on one level in order to progress to another is deterministic and more so than is present in the other two theories which are not hierarchical. • Research support • Practical applications / usefulness • Reductionism and holism • Cultural bias • Comparison with other theories • Generalisations Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 21

(a) Give the equation proposed by Vroom (1964) to calculate motivation. [2] (b) Outline two non-monetary rewards that are motivators at wor…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Give the equation proposed by Vroom (1964) to calculate motivation. 2 Award 1 mark for partially correct (e.g. one term incorrect or omitted). Award 2 marks for fully correct. Motivation = expectancy  instrumentality  valence. 7(b) Outline two non-monetary rewards that are motivators at work. 4 Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. For example: • Praise for completing a good job or making an effort as this makes the employee feel good • Recognition (more of an acknowledgment than praise) e.g. ‘I noticed that you stayed late on Tuesday and I appreciate that’ will also make the employee feel valued • Respect e.g. employer suggests someone else seeks advice from employee. This makes them feel valued • Empowerment such as achieving a difficult task (or even just finishing a task), making employee feel important, more skilled or more competent • Token reward such as letter of commendation or ‘employee of the week’ which makes the employee feel valued and recognised Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain one strength and one weakness of using non-monetary 6 rewards as motivators at work. Likely strengths: • No financial outlay for the organisation so reducing potential costs for increased output • Non-monetary rewards tend to be more motivating as employee feels that they have greater responsibility in achievement • Employer is likely to get to know workforce better as they see what their workers do, which should improve relationships Likely weaknesses: • Individual differences as some may feel more or less valued or motivated by non-monetary reward than others • Some jobs can be difficult to find non-monetary rewards for e.g. factory workers are unlikely to feel empowered if their job is monotonous • Employer often needs to go out of their way to find something to praise or recognise, which can be time-consuming • Employer could be seen as more intrusive and less trusting if they are closely monitoring employee in the hope of finding work to praise Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will explain one strength and one weakness. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will explain one appropriate weakness in detail or one appropriate strength in detail. OR • one weakness and one strength in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt an explanation of either a strength or a weakness. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 22

(a) Describe theories of job satisfaction (two factor theory, job characteristics theory, techniques of job design). [8] (b) Evaluate theor…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe theories of job satisfaction (two factor theory, job 8 characteristics theory, techniques of job design . Theories of job satisfaction, including the following: • two factor theory (Herzberg, 1959) • job characteristics theory (Hackman and Oldham, 1976) • techniques of job design: enrichment, rotation and enlargement Two factor theory (Herzberg, 1959) Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are independent of each other. Some factors in the job cause satisfaction while other, different factors can cause dissatisfaction. Herzberg surveyed 200 workers at a factor in Pittsburgh, USA. Qualitative data was collected to find out what they found good and bad about their job. From this he developed the theory that there are two main factors at work – Motivators – job satisfaction – content of job (recognition, content of work, advancement, achievement, responsibility, etc.) and Hygienes – job dissatisfaction – e.g. level of supervision, job security, salary, working conditions, company policies, etc.) In order to remove dissatisfaction hygiene factors must be met. E.g. pay a good wage. Then motivating factors must be dealt with (e.g. make promotions available to staff, give more responsibility, etc.). Job characteristics theory (Hackman and Oldham, 1976) Core job characteristics that will appeal to workers and improve job satisfaction include – Skill variety Task identity Autonomy Task significance Feedback These together bring about three psychological states about the work. Experience meaningfulness at work, have knowledge of the result of their work in order to enable the worker to grow and develop in their job and experience responsibility over their work. Techniques of job design: enrichment, rotation and enlargement These can allow for increased satisfaction at work. Enrichment – Redesigning the job to make it more challenging and interesting for the employee. These will usually involve more skills and a higher level of responsibility. They will feel more in control of their job and this should lead to greater satisfaction at work. Rotation – Change the tasks the workers are expected to do in their job on a regular basis. Employees could rotate around jobs within the same work environment (e.g. within a factory, kitchen or office) or they could move between departments for even more variety. This will build the skills of the worker and make them more useful to the company who could make use of these skills as and when required. 8(a) Enlargement – This increases the tasks of a particular job. It increases the scope of the employee’s duties and they perform a wider variety of tasks during their working day. This can be either horizontal where more tasks are given to the employee or vertical which could be higher level jobs or more responsibility given to the employee. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate theories of job satisfaction (two factor theory, job 10 characteristics theory, techniques of job design , including a discussion about reductionism versus holism. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – Reductionism versus holism – The Hertzberg theory is somewhat reductionist as it does consider just two factors. However, before this, just the factor of income was considered to be the primary provider of job satisfaction so it is less reductionist than this original belief. The job characteristics theory is less reductionist and considers five factors that could increase worker satisfaction. The job design techniques give three ways that jobs could be improved so that a company can consider all or some of them depending on the nature of the work involved. Also if one does not work in a particular department or with a particular employee, it could be changed to a different one. Thus less reductionist/more holistic. • Determinism • Generalisability • Effectiveness and appropriateness of theories of job satisfaction. • Any appropriate evaluation issue of evidence which supports the theories of job satisfaction • Reductionism • Individual/situational debate Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 23

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job 8 satisfaction. Measures of job satisfaction, including the following:  Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1969)  Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967)  Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1969) Questionnaire measures job satisfaction in experience of work, salary, promotion prospects, experience of supervision, experience of co-workers. Simply scale of yes, no, or can’t decide to each item. Is compared with standardised norms based on data from a large sample of people and updated regularly. Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) Long version contains 100 items and short version 20. Measures satisfaction with a range of aspects including company policies, scope for advancement, security, independence, recognition, responsibility, variety and working conditions. Uses a Likert scale. Original scale was very satisfied, satisfied, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, dissatisfied, very dissatisfied and changed because of skewed results to not satisfied, somewhat satisfied, satisfied, very satisfied, extremely satisfied. Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) Used to assess feelings employees have towards jobs, colleagues, and companies informing how these feelings affect organisational growth and profitability. Could also be seen to allow organisation to respond to employees’ needs. A range of factors assessed including job security, reward systems, pay levels, and opportunity for growth. Uses a Likert scale. Quite complex language used (e.g. remuneration, salubrity, polyvalence). Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about measuring job 10 satisfaction, including a discussion about psychometrics. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include:  Named issue – psychometrics - Strengths – reliable as standardised self-reports given to employees, JDI is valid as it is based on standardised norms, easy to administer and gives a quantitative score so comparisons can be made (e.g. between different departments in an organisation or before and after a restructuring of management. Weaknesses – can lack reliability if different employees have a different understanding of the questions asked. For example, the QWL has complex language in some of the questions which will be understood differently by respondents. Other weaknesses include – lack of validity due to social desirability – employees may wish to appear to be satisfied or due to recent conflicts at work the employee may report being dissatisfied but if the same test was taken after the conflict had been resolved, the employee might report a much higher level of satisfaction. No qualitative data is collected so lacks depth and limited answers available (e.g. JDI has three possible answers).  Strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data (if not discussed in named issue)  Reductionist or holistic measures  Reliability(if not discussed in named issue)  Usefulness / application to everyday life  Cultural bias Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 24

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction. [8] (b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job 8 satisfaction. Measures of job satisfaction, including the following:  Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1969)  Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967)  Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index (Smith et al., 1969) Questionnaire measures job satisfaction in experience of work, salary, promotion prospects, experience of supervision, experience of co-workers. Simply scale of yes, no, or can’t decide to each item. Is compared with standardised norms based on data from a large sample of people and updated regularly. Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) Long version contains 100 items and short version 20. Measures satisfaction with a range of aspects including company policies, scope for advancement, security, independence, recognition, responsibility, variety and working conditions. Uses a Likert scale. Original scale was very satisfied, satisfied, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, dissatisfied, very dissatisfied and changed because of skewed results to not satisfied, somewhat satisfied, satisfied, very satisfied, extremely satisfied. Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) Used to assess feelings employees have towards jobs, colleagues, and companies informing how these feelings affect organisational growth and profitability. Could also be seen to allow organisation to respond to employees’ needs. A range of factors assessed including job security, reward systems, pay levels, and opportunity for growth. Uses a Likert scale. Quite complex language used (e.g. remuneration, salubrity, polyvalence). Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about measuring job 10 satisfaction, including a discussion about psychometrics. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include:  Named issue – psychometrics - Strengths – reliable as standardised self-reports given to employees, JDI is valid as it is based on standardised norms, easy to administer and gives a quantitative score so comparisons can be made (e.g. between different departments in an organisation or before and after a restructuring of management. Weaknesses – can lack reliability if different employees have a different understanding of the questions asked. For example, the QWL has complex language in some of the questions which will be understood differently by respondents. Other weaknesses include – lack of validity due to social desirability – employees may wish to appear to be satisfied or due to recent conflicts at work the employee may report being dissatisfied but if the same test was taken after the conflict had been resolved, the employee might report a much higher level of satisfaction. No qualitative data is collected so lacks depth and limited answers available (e.g. JDI has three possible answers).  Strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data (if not discussed in named issue)  Reductionist or holistic measures  Reliability(if not discussed in named issue)  Usefulness / application to everyday life  Cultural bias Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 25

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories of motivation to work (goal-setting theory, VIE theory, equity the…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about 8 Credit SMART goals cognitive theories of motivation to work (goal-setting theory, VIE theory, equity theory). Cognitive theories about motivation to work, including the following: • Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) • VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) • Equity theory (Adams, 1963) Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) There was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and people's performance of a task. Specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. To motivate goals must have 1 Clarity – measurable and unambiguous 2 Challenge – challenging enough to feel a sense of achievement when accomplished. 3 Commitment – goals are understood and agreed upon with the employee 4 Feedback – Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition 5 Task complexity – the employee should be capable of completing the task set. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) This theory suggests how the actions and behaviours of individuals are done to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Individuals are therefore more likely to be motivated to do certain acts, if they expect that rewards can be obtained, and that these rewards can be obtained without too much trouble and pain. 8(a) Valence Valence is the strength of preference for obtaining a particular outcome. Valence will be positive, when the individual prefers to attain some outcome to not attaining it. If the individual is indifferent, valence will be zero. It is therefore important for managers and employers to discover what is valued by the employees. If an extrinsic factor, such as recognition, is seen as a valuable outcome by an employee, managers may use this information to motivate his/her employee. Instrumentality Instrumentality refers to the belief that doing a task will result in the attainment of some valued reward. If instrumentality is high, an employee believes that certain actions will result in the attainment of the rewards valued by him/her. Expectancy Expectancy relates to the confidence they have in themselves in accomplishing a certain task or assignment satisfactorily. If the individual does not regard himself as competent enough to do a certain job, the individual will not see it as feasible to get the desired rewards, and hence demotivate the employee. According to Vroom, the strength of motivation to perform a certain task can be calculated using this formula: Motivation = Valence × Expectancy × Instrumentality Managers can use the VIE-model accordingly: Firstly, managers have to find out which rewards the employees want, and which rewards are seen as valuable by the employees. (Valence). Secondly, managers have to create instrumentality, in which managers must convince the employees about that the accomplishments of certain tasks, will generate the rewards valued by the employees. 8(a) Thirdly, managers must ensure that the employees have the necessary capabilities to accomplish the given task, so that the employees expect that they will be able to accomplish it, and thus get rewarded. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) ‘Equity Theory focuses upon a person's perceptions of fairness with respect to a relationship. During a social exchange, an individual assesses the ratio of what is output from the relationship to what is input in the relationship, and also the ratio of what the other person in the relationship outputs from the relationship to what is input into the relationship. Equity Theory posits that if the person perceives that there is inequality, where either their output/input ratio is less than or greater than what they perceive as the output/input ratio of the other person in the relationship, then the person is likely to be distressed.’ Adams For organisations this is where an employee/employer judges the employees’ net worth to the company and whether they are equal to the other employees in the same company. They will judge their input to the company and also what they receive for this input in return. In addition, they will compare this judgement to the other employees of the company. If they perceive they are putting in more than they are getting out in comparison to the others in the organisation, the employee will not feel motivated as if the opposite were true. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about 10 cognitive theories of motivation to work (goal-setting theory, VIE theory, equity theory), including a discussion of individual and situational explanations. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – individual and situational explanations – Locke and Latham are a mixture as the employer is helping the employee to set targets and goals and adjusting the situation if necessary but these targets and goals should be specific to that individual employee in order to be considered to be effective. VIE theory is on the individual side of the debate as Motivation = Valence  Expectancy  Instrumentality will be individual to the employee. Adams theory is somewhat more situational as the employee is looking to the situation (other employees) to decide if they are putting in as much as others to the company. There is also an individual element as the employee will have their own personal interpretation of what is meant by input (eg. Some may judge it as the number of hours you are at work while others may see it as whether you are working (and not taking frequent breaks) while at work). • Determinism and free will • Cultural bias/generalisations • Applications to everyday life • Any appropriate evaluation of evidence on which theory is based • reductionism 8(b) Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 26

(a) Identify two ways that workers compare themselves to other workers, according to equity theory (Adams, 1963). [2] (b) Describe the need…

Accepted Answer

7(a) Identify two ways that workers compare themselves to 2 Inputs and outcomes other workers, according to equity theory (Adams, Performance 1963). Award 1 mark for each way in which workers can be compared. For example: Pay Recognition Status What they bring to the job e.g. skills, competence, knowledge Inputs Outputs Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(b) Describe the need theory of achievement motivation 4 (McClelland, 1965). Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of the topic area. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the topic area. Example 4 mark response. This theory has three needs – need for achievement, affiliation and power. (2) The need for achievement is where the workers want to be successful based on their hard work rather than on the basis of luck. (1) The need for affiliation is the need to be liked and accepted by others / to be a part of a group of workers. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 7(c) Explain two differences between achievement 6 If more than two differences are given credit the best two. motivation (McClelland, 1965) and hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1970). Likely differences • Achievement motivation (AM) is not based on a hierarchy whereas hierarchy of needs (HN) is. People have to work through the HN from bottom to top, but in AM the 3 needs are discrete and non-hierarchical. • There is far greater emphasis on needs within an organisation/workplace for AM compared to HN (although Maslow did derive his theory from reference to the workplace). AM far more focused on work compared to HN. • Determinism – HN is more deterministic compared to AM. For example a worker will not be able to be creative in the workplace without their safety needs being met first. On the other hand, a worker could score low for power and achievement, but highly for affiliation. • Individual differences – Everyone has to have their physiological needs met before safety and these needs will be universal. However, not all workers need to have high power needs or high affiliation needs allowing a great many more individual differences. • Ease of assessment – specific criteria exist allowing organisations to measure the needs in each category for AM. Need for affiliation, for example, can be measured using a Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – a projective test using a series of ambiguous images the worker is asked to interpret. Tests for HN are not used in the workplace. 7(c) Mark according to the levels of response criteria below: Level 3 (5–6 marks) • Candidates will show a clear understanding of the question and will explain two differences. • Candidates will provide a good explanation with clear detail. Level 2 (3–4 marks) • Candidates will show an understanding of the question and will explain one difference in detail. • OR two differences in less detail. Level 1 (1–2 marks) • Candidates will show a basic understanding of the question and will attempt an explanation of a difference. They could include both but just as an attempt. • Candidates will provide a limited explanation. Level 0 (0 marks) No response worthy of credit. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 27

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories of motivation to work (goal-setting theory, VIE theory, equity the…

Accepted Answer

8(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about 8 Credit SMART goals cognitive theories of motivation to work (goal-setting theory, VIE theory, equity theory). Cognitive theories about motivation to work, including the following: • Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) • VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) • Equity theory (Adams, 1963) Goal setting theory (Latham and Locke, 1984) There was a relationship between how difficult and specific a goal was and people's performance of a task. Specific and difficult goals led to better task performance than vague or easy goals. To motivate goals must have 1 Clarity – measurable and unambiguous 2 Challenge – challenging enough to feel a sense of achievement when accomplished. 3 Commitment – goals are understood and agreed upon with the employee 4 Feedback – Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition 5 Task complexity – the employee should be capable of completing the task set. VIE (expectancy) theory (Vroom, 1964) This theory suggests how the actions and behaviours of individuals are done to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. Individuals are therefore more likely to be motivated to do certain acts, if they expect that rewards can be obtained, and that these rewards can be obtained without too much trouble and pain. 8(a) Valence Valence is the strength of preference for obtaining a particular outcome. Valence will be positive, when the individual prefers to attain some outcome to not attaining it. If the individual is indifferent, valence will be zero. It is therefore important for managers and employers to discover what is valued by the employees. If an extrinsic factor, such as recognition, is seen as a valuable outcome by an employee, managers may use this information to motivate his/her employee. Instrumentality Instrumentality refers to the belief that doing a task will result in the attainment of some valued reward. If instrumentality is high, an employee believes that certain actions will result in the attainment of the rewards valued by him/her. Expectancy Expectancy relates to the confidence they have in themselves in accomplishing a certain task or assignment satisfactorily. If the individual does not regard himself as competent enough to do a certain job, the individual will not see it as feasible to get the desired rewards, and hence demotivate the employee. According to Vroom, the strength of motivation to perform a certain task can be calculated using this formula: Motivation = Valence × Expectancy × Instrumentality Managers can use the VIE-model accordingly: Firstly, managers have to find out which rewards the employees want, and which rewards are seen as valuable by the employees. (Valence). Secondly, managers have to create instrumentality, in which managers must convince the employees about that the accomplishments of certain tasks, will generate the rewards valued by the employees. 8(a) Thirdly, managers must ensure that the employees have the necessary capabilities to accomplish the given task, so that the employees expect that they will be able to accomplish it, and thus get rewarded. Equity theory (Adams, 1963) ‘Equity Theory focuses upon a person's perceptions of fairness with respect to a relationship. During a social exchange, an individual assesses the ratio of what is output from the relationship to what is input in the relationship, and also the ratio of what the other person in the relationship outputs from the relationship to what is input into the relationship. Equity Theory posits that if the person perceives that there is inequality, where either their output/input ratio is less than or greater than what they perceive as the output/input ratio of the other person in the relationship, then the person is likely to be distressed.’ Adams For organisations this is where an employee/employer judges the employees’ net worth to the company and whether they are equal to the other employees in the same company. They will judge their input to the company and also what they receive for this input in return. In addition, they will compare this judgement to the other employees of the company. If they perceive they are putting in more than they are getting out in comparison to the others in the organisation, the employee will not feel motivated as if the opposite were true. Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table A. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 8(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about 10 cognitive theories of motivation to work (goal-setting theory, VIE theory, equity theory), including a discussion of individual and situational explanations. A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: • Named issue – individual and situational explanations – Locke and Latham are a mixture as the employer is helping the employee to set targets and goals and adjusting the situation if necessary but these targets and goals should be specific to that individual employee in order to be considered to be effective. VIE theory is on the individual side of the debate as Motivation = Valence  Expectancy  Instrumentality will be individual to the employee. Adams theory is somewhat more situational as the employee is looking to the situation (other employees) to decide if they are putting in as much as others to the company. There is also an individual element as the employee will have their own personal interpretation of what is meant by input (eg. Some may judge it as the number of hours you are at work while others may see it as whether you are working (and not taking frequent breaks) while at work). • Determinism and free will • Cultural bias/generalisations • Applications to everyday life • Any appropriate evaluation of evidence on which theory is based • reductionism 8(b) Mark according to the levels of response descriptors in Table B. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 28

Yash is the sales manager of a chocolate company that sells chocolate online. He wants to expand their sales into grocery stores within the…

Accepted Answer

13 Yash is the sales manager of a chocolate company that sells chocolate 4 Need to address three of the five SMART online. He wants to expand their sales into grocery stores within the next for full marks. month. 1 mark if not linked to chocolate/sales Suggest a SMART goal Yash can set for his sales team to expand their team/grocery stores. sales into grocery stores within the next month. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of SMART target linked to help expand sales in the next month. Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of SMART target linked to help expand sales in the next month. Example: Specific – Make contacts with buyers in grocery stores. Measurable – each employee should make 8 contacts with buyers in grocery stores. Attainable – this is an achievable number of contacts to make within the next month. Relevant – Contact must be made with the buyers/purchasing department of the grocery store as these are the people who will decide to stock their chocolate. Time-based – to be completed within a month. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 29

(a) Outline what is meant by the nomothetic approach, including an example from Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory of motivation. [2…

Accepted Answer

14(a) Outline what is meant by the nomothetic approach, including an example 2 Example 3 is from the Key study by Landry. from Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory of motivation. Award 1 mark for an outline of the term/concept. Award 1 marks for applying the term/concept to an example of a source of stress. Example: Definition – The nomothetic approach in psychology establishes generalisations or laws which apply to all people. (1) Possible examples from Deci and Ryan – This theory would suggest that all workers are motivated by the need for achievement, specifically the need to experience intrinsic motivation. (1) This theory would suggest that all workers are motivated by their psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. (1) Employees that receive a reward in an informational way will lead to the employee experiencing greater intrinsic motivation and this will lead to increased performance quality. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 14(b) Explain one strength of using a nomothetic approach to understand 2 motivation at work, using Deci and Ryan’s theory as an example. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of the strength in context. Award 1 mark for a basic outline/identification of the strength. Weaknesses may include: • Good applications to everyday life. Organisations can use this theory to motivate their workers through competence, autonomy and/or relatedness. • Scientific approach – shows cause and effect relationships. The general law about the cause of motivation can be tested scientifically. • General laws are established through doing studies on large groups so good generalisability of the findings. Example: One strength of the nomothetic approach is that it has good applications to everyday life and can help organisations increase motivation. (1) For example, employers can offer rewards to their employees for meeting targets and explain these rewards are to show their appreciation for their hard work which encourages autonomy. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 30

(a) Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about: • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and • McClelland’s theory…

Accepted Answer

16(a) Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and  McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation. Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to this question. Candidates must discuss both Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation, but do not need to use the example of Saeednia’s study from the syllabus. Hierarchy of needs - Maslow Maslow’s theory proposes a hierarchy with the most basic needs of an individual at the bottom and gradually becoming more complex as the hierarchy is climbed. Originally proposed as a five-tier hierarchy it was further expanded to 7 and then 8 levels (as illustrated). In the original model: 1. Physiological (survival)– food, drink, warmth, shelter etc. 2. Safety – security and protection from harm; a need for law and order (e.g. safety protocols at work) 3. Social – need for relationships, affection and family 4. Esteem – need for achievement, mastery and status 5. Self-actualisation – realising potential and fulfilment part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the criteria for Level 3. Max L2 if not linked to motivation at work or just work. 5 marks – 1 linked 6 marks – both linked Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(a) In order to progress to higher levels, Maslow believed the more basic needs had to be satisfied. Workers have to have their physiological needs met before they can progress to the next level of the pyramid. The additional needs added:  Cognitive – having knowledge and understanding  Aesthetic – appreciation for art, music, beauty  Transcendent – helping other to self-actualise Saaednia (2011) Study designed to develop reliable measure of basic-needs- satisfaction of young children. 13 participants had an open- ended interview that collected qualitative data (the participant, parent and educator interviewed). Measure was developed and included Maslow’s five needs plus the need to know and understand which was then given to 300 participants. Found measure to reliable and relatively valid. Achievement motivation – McClelland McClelland asserted that we have 3 work-related needs. All workers need: 1 Achievement – the desire to get a job done, master tasks and be successful. We want to be able to achieve on the basis of hard work rather than luck. 2 Affiliation – the desire to be accepted and liked by others. Effort is employed to create and maintain friendships and relationships with colleagues. 3 Power – the desire to influence others’ lives as well as in the control of others. The need for discipline is important. Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(a) Like ERG theory, achievement motivation is not a hierarchy. McClelland asserted that good managers have the need for power, not necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for affiliation. Need for affiliation can be measured using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). These are a series of ambiguous images that an individual is asked to interpret. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(b) Evaluate what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and  McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation, including a discussion about determinism versus free- will. Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates. Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question. Depending on the examples studied by candidates their answers may vary. A range of issues could be used for evaluation. These include:  Named issue – determinism versus free will – Maslow’s hierarchy was born out of the humanistic approach in psychology. This approach is the least deterministic of all approaches and so free will should be an essential principle. However, the hierarchy of needs appears to have deterministic elements. For example, the fulfilment on one level in order to progress to another is deterministic and more so than is present in McClelland’s theory which is not hierarchical.  Applications to everyday life – the fact that Maslow’s hierarchy is so well-known in management courses/organisations is testament to its usefulness. Clearly ideas from within both theories can be used to apply to organisations to motivate employees e.g. making sure workers feel safe and secure in their work environment as without this need being met, they will not be able to work with a desire to succeed. 10 Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(b)  Individual and situational – Both can be seen as individual to an extent because each of us will have different individual needs and one individual may feel safe while another does not. However, as they are all based around motivation, it is clear that in many cases a manipulation of the environment (the situation) can change motivation.  Cultural differences – All of these need theories do focus on ‘need’. The needs of the individual are very much a Western focus and so such theories are less likely to apply in more collectivist cultures where needs would be seen as group needs rather than those of the individual and so these ideas would not apply. The Saeednia study was carried out in Tehran, Iran which is a wealthy city, and the researcher notes that results cannot be applied to rural areas.  Validity – of the Saeednia study (or any relevant study) may be considered with issues surrounding the collection of qualitative data, interviews, generalisability, etc. For example, the study has good validity as the results from the interview with the child participant were then checked with the parent and educator. The TAT gives qualitative data, but it may be difficult for the interviewer to determine the need for affiliation. Issues surrounding difficulties in determining where employees are in the hierarchy or how satisfied a worker is with their three needs being met at work may be discussed. Additional issues candidates may include  ethics  evaluation of self-reports  reliability Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 31

(a) Outline Herzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction. [2] (b) Explain why Herzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction can be a…

Accepted Answer

14(a) Outline Hertzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction. Award 2 marks for an outline of the term/concept. Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the term/concept. Example: Satisfaction at work arises from two factors – hygiene and motivators. (1) Satisfaction and dissatisfaction work independently of each other. (1) Motivators produce job satisfaction and hygiene factors prevent job dissatisfaction (1) Motivators include rewarding work, responsibility. (1) Hygiene factors include job security, salary, working conditions. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 2 No credit for stating it has two factors affecting satisfaction on its own. 14(b) Explain why Herzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction can be applied to different cultures. Award 2 marks for a detailed explanation of concept in context. Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of concept in context. Likely explanations:  Motivators and hygiene factors will be specific to the individual organisation and country/countries that it operates within.  A multinational company can adjust the motivators and hygiene factors it offers depending on the location of their offices/factory/etc.  Different cultures will value different motivators and hygiene factors but the effect on job satisfaction is the same across cultures. Example: One reason is that different cultures will value different motivator and hygiene factors.(1) For example, allowing employees time off for religious festivals could be an important hygiene in some countries and therefore offered to employees in this country. Therefore the two factor theory of job satisfaction can be tailored to different cultures. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 2

Question 32

(a) Sally manages the production line of a toy factory. A recent survey of her employees has shown that they are not satisfied with their j…

Accepted Answer

15(a) Sally manages the production line of a toy factory. A recent survey of her employees has shown that they are not satisfied with their jobs. Suggest two job design techniques that Sally could use with her employees to improve their job satisfaction. Award 3–4 marks for a detailed answer with clear understanding of the two job design techniques that Sally could use with her employees to improve their job satisfaction. Award 1–2 marks for a basic answer with some understanding of how job design technique(s) that Sally could use with her employees to improve their job satisfaction. Likely answers:  Rotation – tasks within the employee’s current role are regularly changed.  Enrichment – greater variety of tasks given.  Enlargement – horizontal (more tasks to do at same level) / vertical (higher level tasks and/or addition of responsibility for decision making / move across different levels of organisation). Example Sally could first use job rotation where the tasks within the employee’s current role on the toy factory production line are regularly changed. (1) This might improve job satisfaction as the employees get more variety and feel less bored on the production line. (1) Sally could also use job enlargement where she asks her employees to take on more responsibility such as setting the work rota for the production line. (1) This could improve satisfaction because the employees will feel that they have control over their working hours. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. For full marks needs to have some reference to how suggestion would lead to job satisfaction (e.g. the work would be more interesting, less boring, more varied, – implies increased satisfaction). Needs some contextualisation for 4 marks (e.g. toy factory, shop floor, production line). Identification of two job design techniques (or more) = 1 mark max. Question Answer Marks Guidance 15(b) For one of the job design techniques you suggested in part (a): Explain one weakness of this job design technique. Award 2 marks for an explanation of the weakness. Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the weakness. Weaknesses may include:  Employees may require training in order to take on new responsibilities/roles which is time-consuming/costly.  New jobs/tasks may lead to health and safety issues especially on a production line where accidents can happen.  May still not lead to increased job satisfaction. Many production line jobs are not interesting and require the employee to do very repetitive tasks while maintaining a high level of focus.  Productivity may reduce in the short term as employees adjust to new jobs/tasks which costs the organisation money. Example: If Sally has her team take on new responsibilities and they are put in charge of doing the shift rota each week this may be done unfairly. (1) The employee in charge of this might give themselves and those in the team that are their friends/closest co-workers the ‘best’ shifts which could lead to resentment in the rest of the team and a lowering in job satisfaction. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 2 Context is not required.

Question 33

(a) Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about: • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and • McClelland’s theory…

Accepted Answer

16(a) Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and  McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation. Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to this question. Candidates must discuss both Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation, but do not need to use the example of Saeednia’s study from the syllabus. Hierarchy of needs - Maslow Maslow’s theory proposes a hierarchy with the most basic needs of an individual at the bottom and gradually becoming more complex as the hierarchy is climbed. Originally proposed as a five-tier hierarchy it was further expanded to 7 and then 8 levels (as illustrated). In the original model: 1. Physiological (survival)– food, drink, warmth, shelter etc. 2. Safety – security and protection from harm; a need for law and order (e.g. safety protocols at work) 3. Social – need for relationships, affection and family 4. Esteem – need for achievement, mastery and status 5. Self-actualisation – realising potential and fulfilment part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the criteria for Level 3. Max L2 if not linked to motivation at work or just work. 5 marks – 1 linked 6 marks – both linked Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(a) In order to progress to higher levels, Maslow believed the more basic needs had to be satisfied. Workers have to have their physiological needs met before they can progress to the next level of the pyramid. The additional needs added:  Cognitive – having knowledge and understanding  Aesthetic – appreciation for art, music, beauty  Transcendent – helping other to self-actualise Saaednia (2011) Study designed to develop reliable measure of basic-needs- satisfaction of young children. 13 participants had an open- ended interview that collected qualitative data (the participant, parent and educator interviewed). Measure was developed and included Maslow’s five needs plus the need to know and understand which was then given to 300 participants. Found measure to reliable and relatively valid. Achievement motivation – McClelland McClelland asserted that we have 3 work-related needs. All workers need: 1 Achievement – the desire to get a job done, master tasks and be successful. We want to be able to achieve on the basis of hard work rather than luck. 2 Affiliation – the desire to be accepted and liked by others. Effort is employed to create and maintain friendships and relationships with colleagues. 3 Power – the desire to influence others’ lives as well as in the control of others. The need for discipline is important. Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(a) Like ERG theory, achievement motivation is not a hierarchy. McClelland asserted that good managers have the need for power, not necessarily the need for achievement and certainly not the need for affiliation. Need for affiliation can be measured using the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). These are a series of ambiguous images that an individual is asked to interpret. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(b) Evaluate what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about:  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and  McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation, including a discussion about determinism versus free- will. Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates. Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question. Depending on the examples studied by candidates their answers may vary. A range of issues could be used for evaluation. These include:  Named issue – determinism versus free will – Maslow’s hierarchy was born out of the humanistic approach in psychology. This approach is the least deterministic of all approaches and so free will should be an essential principle. However, the hierarchy of needs appears to have deterministic elements. For example, the fulfilment on one level in order to progress to another is deterministic and more so than is present in McClelland’s theory which is not hierarchical.  Applications to everyday life – the fact that Maslow’s hierarchy is so well-known in management courses/organisations is testament to its usefulness. Clearly ideas from within both theories can be used to apply to organisations to motivate employees e.g. making sure workers feel safe and secure in their work environment as without this need being met, they will not be able to work with a desire to succeed. 10 Question Answer Marks Guidance 16(b)  Individual and situational – Both can be seen as individual to an extent because each of us will have different individual needs and one individual may feel safe while another does not. However, as they are all based around motivation, it is clear that in many cases a manipulation of the environment (the situation) can change motivation.  Cultural differences – All of these need theories do focus on ‘need’. The needs of the individual are very much a Western focus and so such theories are less likely to apply in more collectivist cultures where needs would be seen as group needs rather than those of the individual and so these ideas would not apply. The Saeednia study was carried out in Tehran, Iran which is a wealthy city, and the researcher notes that results cannot be applied to rural areas.  Validity – of the Saeednia study (or any relevant study) may be considered with issues surrounding the collection of qualitative data, interviews, generalisability, etc. For example, the study has good validity as the results from the interview with the child participant were then checked with the parent and educator. The TAT gives qualitative data, but it may be difficult for the interviewer to determine the need for affiliation. Issues surrounding difficulties in determining where employees are in the hierarchy or how satisfied a worker is with their three needs being met at work may be discussed. Additional issues candidates may include  ethics  evaluation of self-reports  reliability Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 34

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction: • the job descriptive index (JDI), and • Walton’s quality…

Accepted Answer

16(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job-satisfaction: 6 Award up to 4 marks where the • the job descriptive index (JDI), and response has described only • Walton’s quality of working life (QWL). part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to this criteria for Level 3. question. Candidates must discuss both the JDI and the QWL Syllabus content Measuring job-satisfaction • Job satisfaction rating scales and questionnaires focusing on the job descriptive index (JDI) • Walton’s quality of working life (QWL) including eight conditions and QWL evaluation scale. Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index A self-report questionnaire used to measure job satisfaction on 5 dimensions. The dimensions are job, supervision, pay, promotions, and co-workers. Examples of statements include “Think of the pay you get. How well does each of the following words describe your present pay? Income adequate for normal expenses, Insecure, less than I deserve” or “Think of your job in general. All in all, what is it like most of the time? Undesirable, better than most, rotten”. Next to each of the words/answers is a blank space where the individual writes Y for ‘yes’, N for ‘no’ or ? if they cannot decide. Each item has a score associated with it so a numerical total can be summed for job satisfaction in any number of the 5 dimensions. JDI is compared with standardised norms based on data from a large sample of people and updated regularly. Quite an objective measure. 16(a) Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) 8 conditions – Fair and adequate payment; safe and healthy working conditions; providing opportunities to use and develop skills; opportunity for career growth and security; positive social relationships / integration within the workplace; the total life space; constitutionalism (policies and procedures; and social relevance. Used to assess feelings employees have towards jobs, colleagues, and companies informing how these feelings affect organisational growth and profitability. Could also be seen to allow organisation to respond to employees’ needs. Uses a Likert scale. Quite complex language used (e.g., remuneration, salubrity, polyvalence). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 16(b) Evaluate what psychologist have discovered about measuring job-satisfaction: 10 • the job descriptive index (JDI), and • Walton’s quality of working life (QWL), including a discussion of psychometrics. Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question. Depending on the examples studied by candidates their answers may vary. A range of issues could be used for evaluation including: • Named issue – psychometrics – Both produce quantitative data so comparisons can be made and analysis completed. Psychometrics take a nomothetic approach to subject area. Both measure job satisfaction on a number of different dimensions (5 for JDI and 8 for QWL). Scored differently – Yes, No and ? for JDI but Likert scale for QWL. However, can be an issue of acquiescence bias with Likert scale used for QWL. • Individual and situational explanations – Both measures are for individual assessments but in many cases these are based on situational factors within the workplace. • Quantitative and qualitative data – all quantitative so easy for comparison but potentially lacking in some validity with no qualitative data. • Validity – Both have high face validity. Population validity high for JDI as regularly compared with standardised scores. Many assessed in common. However, lack of qualitative data could be said to reduce validity. As they are self-reports possibility of social desirability bias or people worrying about jobs to answer truthfully. Need to be anonymous to get more honest answers? • Reliability – Standardised so high in reliability. In addition, candidates may also use the following issues: • Self-reports • Reductionism versus holism • Usefulness/application to everyday life. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 35

(a) Outline what is meant by intrinsic motivators at work. [2] (b) Explain why intrinsic motivators at work can differ between cultures. [2]

Accepted Answer

14(a) Outline what is meant by intrinsic motivators at work. 2 1 mark max for just examples. Award 2 marks for an outline of the term/concept. 1 mark – internal sense of reward Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the term/concept. 1 mark – example One must link to work. Syllabus content: • Intrinsic motivators at work: non-monetary rewards including praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of belonging. Example: Intrinsic motivators at work are those that come from a sense of satisfaction the employee has that they have done a good job (1) Intrinsic motivators will include praise, respect (1) recognition, empowerment (1) and a sense of belonging. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 14(b) Explain why intrinsic motivators at work can differ between cultures. 2 Award 2 marks for an explanation linked to the cultural difference in intrinsic motivators. Award 1 mark for a basic explanation. Examples: Those in individualistic cultures (e.g., USA) are likely to be motivated more by praise (1) than those in collectivist cultures (e.g., China), where praise is immodest (1) In Eastern cultures it is more likely for people to be motivated by a sense of belonging (1) than in Western society. This is because of the importance of making a contribution to society (1) that is more valued in the East than the West. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 36

Tayyibah is the manager of a small factory making fabric. Tayyibah has noticed that her workers do not seem to be motivated, although they …

Accepted Answer

15(a) Tayyibah is the manager of a small factory making fabric. Tayyibah has 4 Needs to be appropriate to factory noticed that her workers do not seem to be motivated, although they environment for full marks. receive good wages. She thinks that using Maslow’s hierarchy of needs could help. Suggest two ways in which Tayyibah could use Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to motivate her workers. For each suggested way: Award 2 marks for a suggestion of how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can motivate the workers Award 1 mark for a basic suggestion of how Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can motivate the workers OR outline of one need from Maslow’s hierarchy other than wages. Suggestions should come from any of the levels of need, including: • Self-actualisation (highest) • Aesthetic • Cognitive • Esteem • Belonging • Safety • Physiological (lowest) Examples: • Tayyibah should ensure that her workers have regular rest breaks (1). If they are too tired then their physiological needs are not being met so they will not be motivated for any higher need (1). • Tayyibah could ensure that she regularly gives positive feedback to employees (1). This is likely to increase their sense of esteem, allowing them to then look at higher needs (1). • Tayyibha could provide a small room where workers could eat lunch 15(a) together and relax during breaks (1). This would ensure that they feel they belong, allowing them to focus on their esteem needs next (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 15(b) Explain one weakness of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 2 Award 2 marks for an explanation of the weakness. Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of the weakness. Weaknesses may include: • Even if needs in workplace are met, if those needs are not met outside of work (e.g., at home) then the worker will not be motivated • In many workplaces, being able to provide workers with tasks that are aesthetic, for example, may prove very difficult • Self-actualisation is an unrealistic goal for most, particularly in the workplace • Cultural bias – emphasis on the individual/individualistic culture. • For an employer meeting the budget for any changes could be challenging Example: One weakness of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the workplace is that making some changes to practices and facilities in the workplace can prove costly (1). It is difficult for a manager to recognize the importance of facilities to ensure staff feel a greater sense of belonging (1) while at the same time paying their employees well (employee pay is frequently the largest expenditure for any organization) (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 37

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction: • the job descriptive index (JDI), and • Walton’s quality…

Accepted Answer

16(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job-satisfaction: 6 Award up to 4 marks where the • the job descriptive index (JDI), and response has described only • Walton’s quality of working life (QWL). part of the question even if the response otherwise meets the Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark candidate responses to this criteria for Level 3. question. Candidates must discuss both the JDI and the QWL Syllabus content Measuring job-satisfaction • Job satisfaction rating scales and questionnaires focusing on the job descriptive index (JDI) • Walton’s quality of working life (QWL) including eight conditions and QWL evaluation scale. Rating scales and questionnaires: job descriptive index A self-report questionnaire used to measure job satisfaction on 5 dimensions. The dimensions are job, supervision, pay, promotions, and co-workers. Examples of statements include “Think of the pay you get. How well does each of the following words describe your present pay? Income adequate for normal expenses, Insecure, less than I deserve” or “Think of your job in general. All in all, what is it like most of the time? Undesirable, better than most, rotten”. Next to each of the words/answers is a blank space where the individual writes Y for ‘yes’, N for ‘no’ or ? if they cannot decide. Each item has a score associated with it so a numerical total can be summed for job satisfaction in any number of the 5 dimensions. JDI is compared with standardised norms based on data from a large sample of people and updated regularly. Quite an objective measure. 16(a) Quality of working life (QWL) questionnaire (Walton, 1974) 8 conditions – Fair and adequate payment; safe and healthy working conditions; providing opportunities to use and develop skills; opportunity for career growth and security; positive social relationships / integration within the workplace; the total life space; constitutionalism (policies and procedures; and social relevance. Used to assess feelings employees have towards jobs, colleagues, and companies informing how these feelings affect organisational growth and profitability. Could also be seen to allow organisation to respond to employees’ needs. Uses a Likert scale. Quite complex language used (e.g., remuneration, salubrity, polyvalence). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 16(b) Evaluate what psychologist have discovered about measuring job-satisfaction: 10 • the job descriptive index (JDI), and • Walton’s quality of working life (QWL), including a discussion of psychometrics. Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question. Depending on the examples studied by candidates their answers may vary. A range of issues could be used for evaluation including: • Named issue – psychometrics – Both produce quantitative data so comparisons can be made and analysis completed. Psychometrics take a nomothetic approach to subject area. Both measure job satisfaction on a number of different dimensions (5 for JDI and 8 for QWL). Scored differently – Yes, No and ? for JDI but Likert scale for QWL. However, can be an issue of acquiescence bias with Likert scale used for QWL. • Individual and situational explanations – Both measures are for individual assessments but in many cases these are based on situational factors within the workplace. • Quantitative and qualitative data – all quantitative so easy for comparison but potentially lacking in some validity with no qualitative data. • Validity – Both have high face validity. Population validity high for JDI as regularly compared with standardised scores. Many assessed in common. However, lack of qualitative data could be said to reduce validity. As they are self-reports possibility of social desirability bias or people worrying about jobs to answer truthfully. Need to be anonymous to get more honest answers? • Reliability – Standardised so high in reliability. In addition, candidates may also use the following issues: • Self-reports • Reductionism versus holism • Usefulness/application to everyday life. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 38

Jaya is the manager of a book shop. She has received training about Blau and Boal’s model. The sales staff show high job involvement and lo…

Accepted Answer

13 Jaya is the manager of a book shop. She has received training about Blau and Boal’s model. The sales staff show high job involvement and low organisational commitment. 13(a) Suggest one reason why her sales staff show high job involvement. 2 High job involvement (for information): Employees who Award 2 marks for a suggestion of the reason why her sales staff show high job have intense job involvement involvement. take pride in and are Award 1 mark for a basic suggestion of the reason why her sales staff show high job passionately invested in, the involvement. type of work they do. Job involvement, otherwise Syllabus content: known as job participation, is the Blau and Boal’s absenteeism and organisational commitment model including types of magnitude to which an individual absence, categories of commitment. connects with their work and takes a proactive approach to it. Likely suggestions for high job involvement When one feels this sense of • They put in a lot of effort in the book shop selling the books, dedication to their job, they start • when given an individual task (cleaning the book shop, reorganising the shelves) to gain self-accomplishment will put in a lot of effort. from completing tasks. • Take pride in work/identifies with work- feels proud to sell books/recommend books. Degree to which an employee Example: identifies with their work, Jaya sales staff show high job involvement as they put a lot of effort into their work at the actively participates in it, and shop. (1) They are attentive to the customers and will help them find books or order a derives a sense of self-worth book for them. (1) from it. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 13(b) Suggest one reason why her sales staff show low organisational commitment. 2 Award 2 marks for a suggestion of the reason why her sales staff show low organisational commitment. Award 1 mark for a basic suggestion of the reason why her sales staff show low organisational commitment. Syllabus content: Blau and Boal’s absenteeism and organisational commitment model including types of absence, categories of commitment. Likely suggestions for Low organisational commitment: • Staff will move jobs for better pay/benefits. Turnover will be high at the book shop • Sales staff don’t work well together on group ‘projects’ such as having the sales staff work together to reorganise the book shop. This behaviour explains their low level of commitment as they do not care about belonging to a team. • Doesn’t agree with company goals/mission • Low level of loyalty to book shop – would recommend another book shop to friends/family if the books are less expensive. Example – The sales staff show low organisational commitment as the turnover of staff at the book shop is high. (1) When sales jobs at other shops have been advertised her staff have frequently applied for those jobs – especially if the pay is better. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 39

(a) Outline two features of the job descriptive index (JDI). [2] (b) Explain one practical application of the job descriptive index (JDI). …

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14(a) Outline two features of the job descriptive index (JDI). 2 Five aspects measured including: Award 1 mark for each feature of the job descriptive index (JDI). Experience of the work Salary Features Promotion prospects • 72 items Experience of supervision • Aspects of job satisfaction measured including supervision, opportunities for Experience of Co-workers. promotion, pay, work on present job, job in general, people at present job. • Answered either yes, no, ? (can’t decide) – if the word describes the aspect of job Credit for measures job satisfaction being measured. satisfaction/high score=high job satisfaction. Example of items on self-report • Jobs in General No credit to ‘it’s a self- • pleasant report/questionnaire’ • bad • great • waste of time • good • undesirable For example: Two features of the JDI are that it has 72 items. (1) One aspect of job satisfaction measured is opportunities for promotion. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 14(b) Explain one practical application of the job descriptive index (JDI). 2 If the application is that can identify areas of job Award 2 marks for an explanation of one practical application of the Job Descriptive dissatisfaction in employees Index (JDI). Needs something specific from Award 1 mark for an outline of one practical application of the Job Descriptive Index JDI to improve. (JDI). Practical applications include – • Identifies which aspect of job satisfaction that workers are dissatisfied with (e.g. opportunities for promotion) so that the organisation can focus on improving this aspect and therefore improving satisfaction of its workers. • Can measure job satisfaction before and after a new policy, working conditions to measure whether job satisfaction has improved. • Can identify individual workers that are dissatisfied with their jobs so that the organisation can focus on these workers to improve satisfaction. Example: One practical application is that the organisation can identify which aspect of work that its workers are dissatisfied with and focus on improving just this aspect. (1) For example, workers could be dissatisfied with opportunities for promotion but satisfied with other aspects such as supervision and their work. The organisation could provide training so that its workers gain the skills needed to get promoted. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 40

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about: • extrinsic motivators at work, and • Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory. [6]…

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16(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about: 6 Award up to 4 marks where the response has described • extrinsic motivators at work, and only part of the question even if the response otherwise • Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory. meets the criteria for Level 3. Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark L3 extrinsic motivators – candidate responses to this question. Could be achieved through definitions/examples of some of Candidates must discuss both extrinsic motivators at work the different types (e.g. two in detail or 3 plus briefly) + and Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory. They can explain the psychology of extrinsic motivators (operant include examples of studies e.g. Landry et al. (2019) conditioning) OR applying self-determination theory to motivational rewards. Definitions/examples of 3 plus types of extrinsic motivators AND outlining why these motivate. Answers may include: L2 Deci + Ryan Extrinsic motivators at work 3 needs identified correctly plus brief definitions Extrinsic motivation is where the employees work is driven by a desire to have external goals met such as pay, L3 examples promotion and bonuses. 1 Deci + Ryan identified correctly plus brief definitions AND linked to org and motivation of workers Types of rewards systems: pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, 2 Less detail of the 3 needs + study – minimum outline of performance-related pay findings Pay is the amount given to an employee for their work. This 3 reasonable details of study (procedural details and results could be paid hourly or on an annual salary. Some jobs including effect on autonomy) involve receiving tips or benefits (e.g. use of the gym). Bonuses are given to employees at a certain time of year and are generally a recognition of hard work or achieving certain sales goals of the company. Many receive end of year bonuses as a percentage of the company profits. Profit sharing is where a company shares out its profits amongst all employees (this can be done on a sliding scale with those higher up the organisation receiving more of the profits). It is different to bonuses where a goal must be achieved first. 16(a) Performance-related pay is where targets are set for a member of staff and to achieve a higher rate of pay these targets must be met within an agreed time frame. Targets can also be set for the whole team rather than each individual member of the team. Everyone’s pay is then linked to whether the team achieves their targets. Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory People have three innate needs and when met will achieve psychological growth. Competence – control the outcome of events in life and achieve mastery. Relatedness – to interact, feel connected to and supported by others. Autonomy – To be in control of one own’s life and set own goals. Be able to take action to control direction of one own’s life. Applied to organisational psychology – employees will be motivated by intrinsic rewards (e.g. praise, recognition); training will help employees to feel mastery as well as regular reviews with manager; being able to set own targets/work schedules will help employees to feel in control. Good leadership that builds strong relationships between staff will help employees to meet their relatedness needs. Extrinsic rewards can undermine self-determination. If employee’s behaviour is already motivated by intrinsic reward, giving an external reward such as extra pay reduces autonomy and means the worker becomes reliant on the external reward. 16(a) Landry et al. (2019) applying self-determination theory to motivational rewards. 123 French-speaking students, 60% female, average age 23, assigned randomly to either informational or controlling group. Participants read a paragraph for the task they were about to perform – both groups offered $10 gift card for local shop Autonomy-supportive, the monetary reward was offered to them as a token of appreciation for their contribution. Controlling group = Autonomy-threatening, to convey a controlling meaning to the reward e.g. the monetary reward was used to reinforce the performance standards for the task. Completed a manipulation check to ensure participants felt autonomous (felt encouraged) or felt controlled by the reward (felt pressured). Participants rated • the extent to which they felt their psychological needs were satisfied and frustrated – BPNS scale • reported their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation • perceived value of reward • positive and negative affect (on mood/motivation) Participants completed a short task which consisted of 25 4– letter anagrams 16(a) Results – psychological need satisfaction was positively related to intrinsic motivation and performance and negatively related to extrinsic motivation. Psychological need frustration was negatively related to intrinsic motivation and performance, and positively related to extrinsic motivation. Reward given in a way that supports autonomy leads to better performance on anagram task than presenting reward in a way that challenges autonomy. Supporting that needs are intrinsic. Conclusion – supports Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory as the group of participants who were in the autonomy supporting condition responded more positively and also performed better showing the importance of the need for autonomy. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 16(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about: 10 • extrinsic motivators at work, and • Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory, including a discussion about individual and situational explanations. Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates. Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question. A range of issues could be used for evaluation. These include: • Named issue – Individual versus situational explanations – Extrinsic rewards are situational as these are provided by the organisation. However, the level of extrinsic reward necessary to motivate each individual employee will be different and will also depend on the employee’s view of the type of work they are doing and what is an appropriate level of extrinsic reward for that work (supports individual explanation). Deci and Ryan can be seen as individual as each employee will have their individual understanding and need for competence, relatedness and autonomy. However, there is also a situational explanation as relatedness will depend on how others in the organisation interact/support the worker. • Reductionism versus holism – Extrinsic rewards are more reductionist as it is a low level of explanation of why employees are motivated at work (to receive a monetary/fringe benefit reward). Deci and Ryan is more holistic as it considers three influences on motivation – competence, relatedness and autonomy. Some of these can be received at work and some may be fulfilled outside of work. 16(b) • Generalisations from findings – Landry’s study used 123 students from Canada, average age 23 (60% female). Good sample size but ethnocentric and young age group/students. Can also argue the study was done in the lab so lacked ecological validity – although we are given rewards for partaking in things such as surveys. • Determinism versus free-will – Extrinsic rewards is deterministic as it is the external reward that is determining employee motivation. Deci and Ryan can be seen to support free-will as the employee will seek out competence, autonomy and relatedness. They may ask for training/get training outside of work, join in social events at work, etc. However, there is a deterministic element to the theory as the employer may or may not provide opportunities for the three needs • Idiographic and nomothetic – Deci and Ryan support nomothetic This theory would suggest that all workers are motivated by the need for achievement, specifically the need to experience intrinsic motivation. This theory would suggest that all workers are motivated by their psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Employees that receive a reward in an informational way will lead to the employee experiencing greater intrinsic motivation and this will lead to increased performance quality. Other issues could include: • Application to everyday life • Nature versus nurture • Evaluation of method/data collection use in study(ies) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 41

Jin and Kasem each manage a group of workers. Jin allows each of her workers to take responsibility for part of a project from start to fin…

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13 Jin and Kasem each manage a group of workers. Jin allows each of her workers to take responsibility for part of a project from start to finish. Kasem invites his group of workers to meet socially. Both Jin and Kasem say their approach to management will meet the needs of their workers. From McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation: 13(a) Explain which need is being met by Jin. 2 Also allow need for power. Need for affiliation not Example creditworthy. Jin is meeting the need for achievement. (1) This is because worker’s feel they have accomplished as Jin is allowing them to be responsible for their part of the project from start to 1 mark for identification finish. (1) 1 mark for explanation linked to stem. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 13(b) Explain which need is being met by Kasem. 2 Need for achievement and need for power not Example creditworthy. Kasem is meeting the need for affiliation. (1) This is because worker’s have the need to form good relationships with other people in their team and Kasem is organising for them to 1 mark for identification socialise with each other which will help to strengthen their relationships. (1) 1 mark for explanation linked to stem. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 42

(a) Outline what is meant by ‘valence’ from Vroom’s VIE theory of motivation. [2] (b) Explain one reason why Vroom’s VIE theory of motivati…

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14(a) Outline what is meant by ‘valence’ from Vroom’s VIE theory of motivation. 2 Must link to motivation/effort (at work) Award 2 marks for an outline of the term/concept. for full marks. Award 1 mark for a basic outline of the term/concept. Example: Valence is how much the employee values the reward received after completing a task. (1) OR how much the employee values the outcome of a task. (1) The more they value the task/outcome (reward) the more motivated they will be to complete the task. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 14(b) Explain one reason why Vroom’s VIE theory of motivation could be considered holistic. 2 Award 2 marks for an explanation of one reason why Vroom’s VIE theory of motivation could be considered holistic. Award 1 mark for a basic explanation of one reason why Vroom’s VIE theory of motivation could be considered holistic. Likely content – Considers motivation to effected by • Perception of effort needed (expectancy) • Perception of skills to achieve result/outcome (expectancy) • Belief the reward will be given (instrumentality) • Belief their effort and outcome led to the reward (instrumentality) • Value employee places on reward/outcome (valence) Example: VIE theory may be considered holistic because it looks at motivation as a whole, as it depends on three separate factors combined – valence, expectancy and instrumentality. (2) This theory suggests that employees think about how much effort they are putting in as well as how much they value the reward/outcome in order to be motivated. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 43

Lucy owns a restaurant. She pays her workers a good salary but notices they are not satisfied with their jobs. Lucy reads about Herzberg’s …

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15 Lucy owns a restaurant. She pays her workers a good salary but notices they are not satisfied with their jobs. Lucy reads about Herzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction and thinks her workers will be more satisfied if she provides them with ‘motivators’. Suggest two ways that Lucy could provide her workers with ‘motivators’. 4 No credit for monetary15(a) rewards of any kind. For each suggestion – Award 2 marks for a suggestion of a way that Lucy could provide her workers with ‘motivators’. To achieve full marks one Award 1 mark for a basic suggestion of a way that Lucy could provide her workers with of the suggestions must ‘motivators’. be in context (restaurant, kitchen, tables, diners, Motivators include waiter, etc.) Opportunities for advancement/promotion Possibility for personal growth (e.g. develop new skills) Responsibility/authority to make decisions Recognition for a job well done/achievement at work Achievement – completing a task well/solving a problem Example Lucy could offer training to her employees at the restaurant to help meet the need for personal growth. (1) She could train the staff in the kitchen to wait on tables and the waiting staff to work in the kitchen. (1) Lucy could also recognise staff through praise. (1) For example, if the restaurant receives good reviews, Lucy could share this with her staff and acknowledge their contribution to the good reviews. (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 15(b) Explain one weakness of Herzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction. 2 Award 2 marks for a weakness of Hertzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction. Award 1 mark for a basic outline of a weakness of Hertzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction . Weaknesses may include: • Subsequent research has failed to replicate Herzberg’s findings on which he based his theory so it lacks (temporal) validity or generalisability. • In some organisations it may be very challenging to address hygiene and motivational factors and could potentially prove very costly particularly with managers who do not value satisfaction in their workers or believe that satisfaction is unachievable. • May be culturally biased and lack generalisability because standards of living in an area may lead to a situation where people live hand-to-mouth and job satisfaction is a luxury that cannot be afforded • May not account for individual differences. People could be motivated differently depending on need. For some, for example, high pay does make work satisfying and is motivating because they are the only one bringing money into a household. For a more affluent person pay is a hygiene factor as Herzberg predicts • Weaknesses of Hertzberg’s study – interviews of 200 engineers and accountants (e.g. generalisability/social desirability). • Weakness with providing ‘motivators’ – some jobs have limited opportunities for promotion and growth; some jobs are not valued in society so difficult to meet the desire for status; many jobs involve working unsociable hours/over holidays so difficult to have good working conditions. Example: One weakness of Hertzberg’s theory is that it may be difficult for companies to meet hygiene and motivational factors due to the nature of the business. (1) Some types of work may not provide opportunities for promotion/status (motivators) and the company cannot afford to pay the workers above minimum wage (hygiene). (1) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 44

(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about: • extrinsic motivators at work, and • Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory. [6]…

Accepted Answer

16(a) Describe what psychologists have discovered about: 6 Award up to 4 marks where the response has described • extrinsic motivators at work, and only part of the question even if the response otherwise • Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory. meets the criteria for Level 3. Use Table A: AO1 Knowledge and understanding to mark L3 extrinsic motivators – candidate responses to this question. Could be achieved through definitions/examples of some of Candidates must discuss both extrinsic motivators at work the different types (e.g. two in detail or 3 plus briefly) + and Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory. They can explain the psychology of extrinsic motivators (operant include examples of studies e.g. Landry et al. (2019) conditioning) OR applying self-determination theory to motivational rewards. Definitions/examples of 3 plus types of extrinsic motivators AND outlining why these motivate. Answers may include: L2 Deci + Ryan Extrinsic motivators at work 3 needs identified correctly plus brief definitions Extrinsic motivation is where the employees work is driven by a desire to have external goals met such as pay, L3 examples promotion and bonuses. 1 Deci + Ryan identified correctly plus brief definitions AND linked to org and motivation of workers Types of rewards systems: pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, 2 Less detail of the 3 needs + study – minimum outline of performance-related pay findings Pay is the amount given to an employee for their work. This 3 reasonable details of study (procedural details and results could be paid hourly or on an annual salary. Some jobs including effect on autonomy) involve receiving tips or benefits (e.g. use of the gym). Bonuses are given to employees at a certain time of year and are generally a recognition of hard work or achieving certain sales goals of the company. Many receive end of year bonuses as a percentage of the company profits. Profit sharing is where a company shares out its profits amongst all employees (this can be done on a sliding scale with those higher up the organisation receiving more of the profits). It is different to bonuses where a goal must be achieved first. 16(a) Performance-related pay is where targets are set for a member of staff and to achieve a higher rate of pay these targets must be met within an agreed time frame. Targets can also be set for the whole team rather than each individual member of the team. Everyone’s pay is then linked to whether the team achieves their targets. Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory People have three innate needs and when met will achieve psychological growth. Competence – control the outcome of events in life and achieve mastery. Relatedness – to interact, feel connected to and supported by others. Autonomy – To be in control of one own’s life and set own goals. Be able to take action to control direction of one own’s life. Applied to organisational psychology – employees will be motivated by intrinsic rewards (e.g. praise, recognition); training will help employees to feel mastery as well as regular reviews with manager; being able to set own targets/work schedules will help employees to feel in control. Good leadership that builds strong relationships between staff will help employees to meet their relatedness needs. Extrinsic rewards can undermine self-determination. If employee’s behaviour is already motivated by intrinsic reward, giving an external reward such as extra pay reduces autonomy and means the worker becomes reliant on the external reward. 16(a) Landry et al. (2019) applying self-determination theory to motivational rewards. 123 French-speaking students, 60% female, average age 23, assigned randomly to either informational or controlling group. Participants read a paragraph for the task they were about to perform – both groups offered $10 gift card for local shop Autonomy-supportive, the monetary reward was offered to them as a token of appreciation for their contribution. Controlling group = Autonomy-threatening, to convey a controlling meaning to the reward e.g. the monetary reward was used to reinforce the performance standards for the task. Completed a manipulation check to ensure participants felt autonomous (felt encouraged) or felt controlled by the reward (felt pressured). Participants rated • the extent to which they felt their psychological needs were satisfied and frustrated – BPNS scale • reported their intrinsic and extrinsic motivation • perceived value of reward • positive and negative affect (on mood/motivation) Participants completed a short task which consisted of 25 4– letter anagrams 16(a) Results – psychological need satisfaction was positively related to intrinsic motivation and performance and negatively related to extrinsic motivation. Psychological need frustration was negatively related to intrinsic motivation and performance, and positively related to extrinsic motivation. Reward given in a way that supports autonomy leads to better performance on anagram task than presenting reward in a way that challenges autonomy. Supporting that needs are intrinsic. Conclusion – supports Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory as the group of participants who were in the autonomy supporting condition responded more positively and also performed better showing the importance of the need for autonomy. Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 16(b) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about: 10 • extrinsic motivators at work, and • Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory, including a discussion about individual and situational explanations. Evaluation in your answer can include strengths, weaknesses and a discussion of issues and debates. Use Table B: AO3 Analysis and evaluation to mark candidate responses to this question. A range of issues could be used for evaluation. These include: • Named issue – Individual versus situational explanations – Extrinsic rewards are situational as these are provided by the organisation. However, the level of extrinsic reward necessary to motivate each individual employee will be different and will also depend on the employee’s view of the type of work they are doing and what is an appropriate level of extrinsic reward for that work (supports individual explanation). Deci and Ryan can be seen as individual as each employee will have their individual understanding and need for competence, relatedness and autonomy. However, there is also a situational explanation as relatedness will depend on how others in the organisation interact/support the worker. • Reductionism versus holism – Extrinsic rewards are more reductionist as it is a low level of explanation of why employees are motivated at work (to receive a monetary/fringe benefit reward). Deci and Ryan is more holistic as it considers three influences on motivation – competence, relatedness and autonomy. Some of these can be received at work and some may be fulfilled outside of work. 16(b) • Generalisations from findings – Landry’s study used 123 students from Canada, average age 23 (60% female). Good sample size but ethnocentric and young age group/students. Can also argue the study was done in the lab so lacked ecological validity – although we are given rewards for partaking in things such as surveys. • Determinism versus free-will – Extrinsic rewards is deterministic as it is the external reward that is determining employee motivation. Deci and Ryan can be seen to support free-will as the employee will seek out competence, autonomy and relatedness. They may ask for training/get training outside of work, join in social events at work, etc. However, there is a deterministic element to the theory as the employer may or may not provide opportunities for the three needs • Idiographic and nomothetic – Deci and Ryan support nomothetic This theory would suggest that all workers are motivated by the need for achievement, specifically the need to experience intrinsic motivation. This theory would suggest that all workers are motivated by their psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Employees that receive a reward in an informational way will lead to the employee experiencing greater intrinsic motivation and this will lead to increased performance quality. Other issues could include: • Application to everyday life • Nature versus nurture • Evaluation of method/data collection use in study(ies) Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 45

(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘nomothetic approach’, including an example from a need theory of motivation at work. [2] (b) Explain how a …

Accepted Answer

14(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘nomothetic approach’, including an example from a need 2 theory of motivation at work. 1 mark – definition of nomothetic 1 mark – reference to a need theory of motivation Syllabus content: 4.1.1 Need theories • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs including five needs • McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation including need for achievement, affiliation and power Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Example: A nomothetic approach uses large samples of participants to establish general laws of behaviour (1). For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggests that we are unable to be motivated by esteem needs unless our physiological, safety and social needs are first met (1). This is a general law about motivation (1). 14(b) Explain how a need theory of motivation at work could be investigated using an 2 Interview – okay to outline this idiographic approach. but for questionnaire need to state that they would ask 1 mark – outline of how idiographic approach could be investigated open ended Qs. 1 mark – reference to need theory (theory does not need to be named) Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Examples: An employee could keep a daily record of times when they have felt the need for achievement, affiliation and power at work (1). This method of data gathering is idiographic as it concerns an individual’s whole experience of achievement motivation (1) and enables the relative importance of each to be evaluated qualitatively (1). An organisational psychologist could carry out a case study of a company (1) looking at the way in which workers are provided with physiological, safety, social etc. needs on Maslow’s hierarchy (1). The case study method is idiographic because it is not trying to establish general laws but the examine the experience of individuals (in this case an individual company) (1).

Question 46

Tatpara is the manager at a carpet factory. He is concerned about low production at his factory. Tatpara believes this may be due to a lack…

Accepted Answer

15(a) Tatpara is the manager at a carpet factory. He is concerned about low production at his 4 factory. Tatpara believes this may be due to a lack of motivation in the workers. Suggest two ways Tatpara could use extrinsic motivators with the carpet factory workers to increase production. Syllabus reference: Extrinsic motivators at work: types of reward systems including pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, performance-related pay. For each suggestion: 1 mark – name/brief outline of extrinsic motivator 1 mark – detail and in context Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Suggestions are likely to be: • Pay (increase) • Bonus (one-off payment) • Profit-sharing • Performance-related pay It needs to be clear in the two suggestions that they are different extrinsic motivators Examples: Tatpara could introduce a performance-related pay scheme (1). The performance of workers will be monitored and those who are working the hardest/producing the most carpet will be paid more than those who are working less (1). Tatpara could have a bonus scheme (1) whereby if the profits of the factory increase (by x amount) then each contributing employee would get a bonus one-off payment (1). This could be a set amount for everyone so workers feel compelled to work well as a team to all get a share in the bonus (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 15(b) For one of your suggestions in part (a), 2 If reasonable suggestion is given in 15a which received 0 Explain one strength of this suggestion, other than to increase production. marks it can be credited for this Q. e.g. job enrichment. 1 mark – basic strength of suggestion 1 mark – detail Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Strengths may include: • Employee more likely to continue to work for factory due to increased money and thus satisfaction • Employee feels more part of a team so committed to the factory • Bonus schemes may give enhanced view of fairness – we all benefit if we work together to do more • Performance-related pay could lead to a greater sense of a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work • If profits from factory increase, Tatpara is investing that in the increased wage bill demonstrating little overall cost to the factory Examples: Increased pay for the factory workers may get them out of a rut of feeling undervalued (1). This is likely to lead to feeling not just more motivated but more cared for (1), causing the workers to work even harder (1). Profit sharing at the factory could not only increase motivation but also make the workers feel more invested in the work of the factory (1). The workers will know that all of the work they do that increases the profits of the factory will ultimately benefit them (1). This would increase commitment and teamwork (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 47

Ingrid is the headteacher in a large school. She would like to measure the job satisfaction of all the workers at the school, including tea…

Accepted Answer

15(a) Ingrid is the head teacher in a large school. She would like to measure the job 4 satisfaction of all the workers at the school, including teachers and other workers. She has decided to use the job descriptive index (JDI). Suggest two reasons why the JDI is an appropriate measure of job satisfaction of all the workers at Ingrid’s school. For each suggestion: Award 2 marks for a reason for choosing the JDI to measure satisfaction in the context of the workers at a school Award 1 mark for a basic outline of a reason Syllabus reference: Measuring job satisfaction – job satisfaction rating scales and questionnaires focusing on the job descriptive index (JDI). Likely suggestions: • It uses self-report (questionnaire) making it relatively easy to administer. • Workers simply answer yes, no, or can’t decide to a series of statements about their job so it is fairly undemanding for the worker • It is a well-known and widely used measure of job satisfaction • It is quite comprehensive as it looks at 5 aspects of job satisfaction – experience of the work, salary, promotion prospects, experience of supervision, and experience of co- workers. • Results can be compared with standardised norms based on data from a large sample of people, which is regularly updated. • Scores can be compared with normative scores in respect of age, gender, job level, education etc. • It measures specific, objective areas of job satisfaction rather than satisfaction in general terms. • Relatively easy to read and does not use complex language so suitable to use with a large variety of people (including the less well-educated at the school, such as cleaners and caretaking staff). 15(a) Examples: One reason to choose the JDI is because it is relatively easy to complete as it consists of a self-report with yes, no, or can’t decide options only (1). This means the busy workers at Ingrid’s school will be more likely to complete the questionnaire (1) leading to a higher response rate and more data for the governors to work with (1). One reason to use the JDI is because it is a standardised tool for measuring job satisfaction in a number of areas including promotion prospects, experience of the work and experience of supervision (1). This means that the results could help the governors decide how best to improve the working experience of the workers at the school (1) on a number of very specific and objective scales (rather than a rather than more general assessments of job satisfaction) (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 15(b) Explain one weakness of the JDI. 2 1 mark = weakness 1 mark = link to JDI Weaknesses may include: • Lack of qualitative data • Forced-choice answers • Use of questionnaire rather than interview • Although comprehensive there may be other aspects to someone’s job satisfaction that have not been captured that could be crucial to their job satisfaction. Example: One weakness of the JDI is that it only collects responses from forced-choice questions (1). Participants can only choose responses from yes, no and can’t decide (1). It could be that the most appropriate way of expressing their satisfaction (or otherwise) would be for the participants to write a description of their experience (1), which the JDI does not allow, limiting its power to capture job satisfaction (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

Question 48

(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘nomothetic approach’, including an example from a need theory of motivation at work. [2] (b) Explain how a …

Accepted Answer

14(a) Outline what is meant by a ‘nomothetic approach’, including an example from a need 2 theory of motivation at work. 1 mark – definition of nomothetic 1 mark – reference to a need theory of motivation Syllabus content: 4.1.1 Need theories • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs including five needs • McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation including need for achievement, affiliation and power Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Example: A nomothetic approach uses large samples of participants to establish general laws of behaviour (1). For example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggests that we are unable to be motivated by esteem needs unless our physiological, safety and social needs are first met (1). This is a general law about motivation (1). 14(b) Explain how a need theory of motivation at work could be investigated using an 2 Interview – okay to outline this idiographic approach. but for questionnaire need to state that they would ask 1 mark – outline of how idiographic approach could be investigated open ended Qs. 1 mark – reference to need theory (theory does not need to be named) Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Examples: An employee could keep a daily record of times when they have felt the need for achievement, affiliation and power at work (1). This method of data gathering is idiographic as it concerns an individual’s whole experience of achievement motivation (1) and enables the relative importance of each to be evaluated qualitatively (1). An organisational psychologist could carry out a case study of a company (1) looking at the way in which workers are provided with physiological, safety, social etc. needs on Maslow’s hierarchy (1). The case study method is idiographic because it is not trying to establish general laws but the examine the experience of individuals (in this case an individual company) (1).

Question 49

Tatpara is the manager at a carpet factory. He is concerned about low production at his factory. Tatpara believes this may be due to a lack…

Accepted Answer

15(a) Tatpara is the manager at a carpet factory. He is concerned about low production at his 4 factory. Tatpara believes this may be due to a lack of motivation in the workers. Suggest two ways Tatpara could use extrinsic motivators with the carpet factory workers to increase production. Syllabus reference: Extrinsic motivators at work: types of reward systems including pay, bonuses, profit-sharing, performance-related pay. For each suggestion: 1 mark – name/brief outline of extrinsic motivator 1 mark – detail and in context Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Suggestions are likely to be: • Pay (increase) • Bonus (one-off payment) • Profit-sharing • Performance-related pay It needs to be clear in the two suggestions that they are different extrinsic motivators Examples: Tatpara could introduce a performance-related pay scheme (1). The performance of workers will be monitored and those who are working the hardest/producing the most carpet will be paid more than those who are working less (1). Tatpara could have a bonus scheme (1) whereby if the profits of the factory increase (by x amount) then each contributing employee would get a bonus one-off payment (1). This could be a set amount for everyone so workers feel compelled to work well as a team to all get a share in the bonus (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited. 15(b) For one of your suggestions in part (a), 2 If reasonable suggestion is given in 15a which received 0 Explain one strength of this suggestion, other than to increase production. marks it can be credited for this Q. e.g. job enrichment. 1 mark – basic strength of suggestion 1 mark – detail Annotate with ticks to show where marks awarded Strengths may include: • Employee more likely to continue to work for factory due to increased money and thus satisfaction • Employee feels more part of a team so committed to the factory • Bonus schemes may give enhanced view of fairness – we all benefit if we work together to do more • Performance-related pay could lead to a greater sense of a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work • If profits from factory increase, Tatpara is investing that in the increased wage bill demonstrating little overall cost to the factory Examples: Increased pay for the factory workers may get them out of a rut of feeling undervalued (1). This is likely to lead to feeling not just more motivated but more cared for (1), causing the workers to work even harder (1). Profit sharing at the factory could not only increase motivation but also make the workers feel more invested in the work of the factory (1). The workers will know that all of the work they do that increases the profits of the factory will ultimately benefit them (1). This would increase commitment and teamwork (1). Other appropriate responses should also be credited.

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Questions9 pages

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Q2 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about motivators at work (e.g 9990/32 May/June 2018

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Q4 · Describe measures of job satisfaction used by psychologists 9990/32 Feb/March 2019

Q5 · Explain what is meant by ‘enlargement’ as a job design technique 9990/31 May/June 2019

Q6 · Explain what is meant by ‘enlargement’ as a job design technique 9990/33 May/June 2019

Q7 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to… 9990/31 Oct/Nov 2019

Q8 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to… 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2019

Q9 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories about motivation to… 9990/33 Oct/Nov 2019

Q10 · Explain what is meant by ‘job satisfaction’ 9990/32 Feb/March 2020

Q11 · Explain what is meant by ‘extrinsic motivation’ in relation to work 9990/33 May/June 2020

Q12 · Describe theories of job satisfaction 9990/33 May/June 2020

Q13 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about attitudes to work 9990/32 Feb/March 2021

Q14 · Explain what is meant by ‘empowerment’ as a motivator at work 9990/32 May/June 2021

Q15 · Outline the two factor theory of job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1959) 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2021

Q16 · Explain what is meant by ‘enrichment’ as a job design technique 9990/31 May/June 2022

Q17 · Explain what is meant by ‘enrichment’ as a job design technique 9990/33 May/June 2022

Q18 · Give the equation proposed by Vroom (1964) to calculate motivation 9990/31 Oct/Nov 2022

Q19 · Explain what is meant by ‘organisational commitment’, e.g 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2022

Q20 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about need theories (hierarchy of needs, ERG… 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2022

Q21 · Give the equation proposed by Vroom (1964) to calculate motivation 9990/33 Oct/Nov 2022

Q22 · Describe theories of job satisfaction (two factor theory, job characteristics theory… 9990/32 Feb/March 2023

Q23 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction 9990/31 May/June 2023

Q24 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction 9990/33 May/June 2023

Q25 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories of motivation to… 9990/31 Oct/Nov 2023

Q26 · Identify two ways that workers compare themselves to other workers, according to equity… 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2023

Q27 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about cognitive theories of motivation to… 9990/33 Oct/Nov 2023

Q28 · Yash is the sales manager of a chocolate company that sells chocolate online 9990/32 Feb/March 2024

Q29 · Outline what is meant by the nomothetic approach, including an example from Deci and… 9990/32 Feb/March 2024

Q30 · Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about: • Maslow’s… 9990/31 May/June 2024

Q31 · Outline Herzberg’s two factor theory of job satisfaction 9990/32 May/June 2024

Q32 · Sally manages the production line of a toy factory 9990/32 May/June 2024

Q33 · Describe what psychologists studying motivation to work have discovered about: • Maslow’s… 9990/33 May/June 2024

Q34 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction: • the job… 9990/31 Oct/Nov 2024

Q35 · Outline what is meant by intrinsic motivators at work 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2024

Q36 · Tayyibah is the manager of a small factory making fabric 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2024

Q37 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about measuring job satisfaction: • the job… 9990/33 Oct/Nov 2024

Q38 · Jaya is the manager of a book shop 9990/32 Feb/March 2025

Q39 · Outline two features of the job descriptive index (JDI) 9990/32 Feb/March 2025

Q40 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about: • extrinsic motivators at work, and •… 9990/31 May/June 2025

Q41 · Jin and Kasem each manage a group of workers 9990/32 May/June 2025

Q42 · Outline what is meant by ‘valence’ from Vroom’s VIE theory of motivation 9990/32 May/June 2025

Q43 · Lucy owns a restaurant 9990/32 May/June 2025

Q44 · Describe what psychologists have discovered about: • extrinsic motivators at work, and •… 9990/33 May/June 2025

Q45 · Outline what is meant by a ‘nomothetic approach’, including an example from a need theory… 9990/31 Oct/Nov 2025

Q46 · Tatpara is the manager at a carpet factory 9990/31 Oct/Nov 2025

Q47 · Ingrid is the headteacher in a large school 9990/32 Oct/Nov 2025

Q48 · Outline what is meant by a ‘nomothetic approach’, including an example from a need theory… 9990/33 Oct/Nov 2025

Q49 · Tatpara is the manager at a carpet factory 9990/33 Oct/Nov 2025