Managing the conservation of biodiversity — Paper 2 — A Level Environmental Management (AS only) 8291 topical questions

Question 1

(a) A lake is an example of an ecosystem. (i) State what is meant by the term ecosystem. ..................................................…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) (interactions between) a community of organisms / eq. and the environment / eq.; 1 Question Answer Marks 2(a)(ii) One mark for an abiotic factor and one mark for a biotic factor. Two marks for the influence on the ecosystem. (Max. 2 × 2) abiotic factor: light / carbon dioxide / water / oxygen / pH / minerals / temperature; biotic factor: predators / population density / competition for resources / food availability / disease; Accept other valid explanations of the influences. Examples may include: light: (light energy is transferred to chemical energy by) photosynthesis; food produced by the primary producers of the ecosystem; carbon dioxide / water: used as raw materials in the process of photosynthesis; in primary productivity of the ecosystem; (Accept acidification effects.) water: medium for organisms; in which to carry out life processes within the ecosystem – to move, reproduce, etc.; oxygen: used in (aerobic) respiration; to release energy (by living organisms in the ecosystem); pH / temperature: effect rate of chemical reactions; species tolerance to these factors will determine the species composition of the ecosystem; minerals: are required for plant growth; productivity of the ecosystem; 6 Question Answer Marks 2(a)(ii) predators: predators consume prey; have a predator-prey feeding relationship and control population size in the ecosystem; population density: affects availability of food, nesting sites etc.; competition for resources in the ecosystem; food availability / disease: determines population size of organisms; determines biodiversity of the ecosystem; Allow ECF if factor incorrectly identified as biotic / abiotic. 2(b) a change in the community as the environment changes / a hydrosere; organic material / sediment builds up in the lake / increasing sedimentation; water becomes shallower / the lake gradually fills in / less open water / area dries out / increased evaporation; abiotic factors / environment change during succession; e.g. moisture content of sediment / soil; aquatic species are gradually replaced by marsh / wetland species; eventually the area becomes less favourable to aquatic organisms / more favourable to terrestrial organisms; grasses / herbaceous plants / shrubs colonise / grow; eventually a woodland / climax forest is established; colonising from the surrounding terrestrial ecosystem; Credit ref. to climate change and transition to drier environment. 5 Question Answer Marks 2(c)(i) Credit one mark for each of three different benefits or award additonal marks for development of a benefit or an example. Max. of two marks for one area. For example: ecological; e.g. habitat for aquatic species / niches / nesting sites / breeding ground for amphibians / maintaining biodiversity; aesthetic; e.g. beauty of the landscape; education; e.g. awareness of the importance of food chains / webs; recreation; e.g. boating; walking / relaxation; economic; e.g. harvesting of reeds; fishing; tourism; as a water resource; environmental; e.g. flood protection; moral; e.g. preventing extinction of species; 3 Question Answer Marks 2(c)(ii) Allow ref. to management of the lake or surrounding area or both. Examples may include: management of surrounding area: control of pollution, e.g. run-off from fields; control of nutrient input into the lake; timing of fertiliser treatment on the agricultural land; quantity of fertilisers applied; planting buffer strips along agricultural land and stream / river; to absorb nutrients / reduce nutrient load; to prevent eutrophication; maintenance of drainage ditches; removing silt / sediment build-up; to maintain flow and prevent flooding; selective logging in managed woodland; coppicing; afforestation of felled areas; replanting native species; management of lake: control algae blooms; oxygenation of water; reed cutting on edge of lake to maintain open water; management of wetland area; to prevent succession; 5 Question Answer Marks 2(c)(ii) monitoring fish numbers; maintaining fish stocks; control of invasive species; to reduce competition from non-native species; other conservation strategies, e.g.: monitoring; control of visitor numbers; allow research / educational field trips / studies; controlled access to site, e.g. entry permits; fishing permits; clearing debris; legislation, with examples; establish lake ecosystem as a protected area; e.g. nature reserve / country park;

Question 2

Fig. 4.1 shows changes in the world’s biodiversity according to the Living Planet Index from 1970 to 2003. The index compares biodiversity …

Accepted Answer

4(a) trends: Overall the graph shows a decrease in biodiversity since 1970 in all ecosystems, from a biodiversity index of 1.0 in 1970. In freshwater ecosystems biodiversity initially increased between 1970 and 1983 with a rise in the biodiversity index from 1.0 to 1.1. This was followed by a significant decrease to a biodiversity index of approx. 0.71 in 2003. There was also an overall increase in biodiversity between 1970 and 1975 in marine ecosystems, followed by a decline to a biodiversity index of approx. 0.72 in 2003. Terrestrial ecosystems show a decreasing trend, ending with the lowest biodiversity index of approx. 0.69 in 2003. However, there are fluctuations and anomalies, for example, 1995 in marine ecosystems or 2000 in freshwater ecosystems. Reasons for decreases include, for example in terrestrial ecosystems, changing land use, habitat loss, pollution such as acid rain and the introduction of invasive species. In marine ecosystems reasons for decreases include marine pollution (e.g. oil spills), climate change, increase in shipping transportation and overexploitation. In freshwater ecosystems reasons for decreases include increases in organic pollutants, sewage disposal and agricultural run-off. Reasons for increases include, for example, pollution control of rivers, waste management and environmental protection. Please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks 4(b) The question requirements are: • to consider how a ‘species approach’ can protect species • to consider how an ‘ecosystem approach’ can protect populations in their natural habitats • to compare the advantages of the two approaches • to use examples of conservation. Indicative content: A species approach protects species from extinction. Endangered species are identified, legally protected, and their critical habitat is preserved. Breeding can take place in a wildlife sanctuary or special reserve or in captivity, in a zoo and then reintroduced into suitable habitats. An ecosystem approach protects populations of species in their natural habitats. By preserving areas in the biomes through government action in ecological islands, nature reserves or national parks. Degraded ecosystems can be restored. Advantages of each approach should be considered and compared. A species approach can prevent extinction of a species. Iconic species can help to raise awareness and funds, which can be used generally for conservation. Through protecting the habitat for one species the habitat is also protected for other species. An ecosystem approach considers the need for an entire functioning ecosystem, which protects a range of species including species which may not have even been discovered. Protecting an ecosystem also gives other benefits, for example watershed protection or carbon sequestration depending on examples used. Please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 3

Fig. 4.1 shows a mangrove ecosystem, which is an example of a coastal water ecosystem. mangrove vegetation high tide marine life low tide F…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Biotic factors include, for example, the mangrove vegetation and the marine life. The growth of mangrove roots provides a framework for sedimentation of organic matter which traps nutrients and provides a substrate for other organisms to colonise. The mangrove vegetation carries out photosynthesis – primary productivity. Producers transfer energy from sunlight, produce oxygen and biomass and determine the productivity and trophic structure of the ecosystem. The vegetation also provides habitats, niches, food and nesting sites and therefore influences the biodiversity of the ecosystem. There are feeding relationships between the marine life in food chains and food webs, at the different trophic levels of producers, herbivores and carnivores. There are predator and prey relationships and there is competition between the organisms which influence the population density of species in the ecosystem. Abiotic factors include, for example, the water level and tides. The water level / depth of water can restrict the growth of mangrove roots and affect the oxygen concentration of the water and thus the respiration of the aquatic organisms. Different mangrove vegetation / organisms can tolerate different water depths with differing degrees of exposure to the air and have varying tolerance to desiccation. The tides also affect the salinity of the water. Different species of mangrove vegetation have varying degrees of salt tolerance. Please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks 4(b) The question requirements are: • to use examples relevant to preservation of the biosphere • to refer to the role of international protocols and organisations • to assess the effectiveness of the international protocols and organisations in preservation of the biosphere. Indicative content: International protocols, for example, the agreement signed at the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 – UN Conference on Environment and Development have highlighted the need to preserve the biosphere. Both species and pollution cross national borders and trade in endangered species is also international. Oceans do not have borders and pollution from one side of the globe can affect the other side of the world; hence protocols are required to preserve the biosphere. However individual countries will still want to protect their own interests, not all nations are in agreement or signed the treaty and action plans needed to follow up the initial commitment have not been carried out. International conservation organisations include, for example the IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature, the WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature. Organisations such as these help in highlighting issues and in formulating the agreements between countries / governments. They are important in publicising environmental information, for example the list of threatened species and in raising charitable funds to help carry out action plans. Although effective to some extent there are still problems, for example, the continued loss of habitat and the illegal trade. Examples of biomes could include tropical rainforests or different ecosystem types, for example, coral reefs. Specific animals or species can also be used to assess the effectiveness of organisations and protocols. Please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 4

Fig. 4.1 shows a mangrove ecosystem, which is an example of a coastal water ecosystem. mangrove vegetation high tide marine life low tide F…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Biotic factors include, for example, the mangrove vegetation and the marine life. The growth of mangrove roots provides a framework for sedimentation of organic matter which traps nutrients and provides a substrate for other organisms to colonise. The mangrove vegetation carries out photosynthesis – primary productivity. Producers transfer energy from sunlight, produce oxygen and biomass and determine the productivity and trophic structure of the ecosystem. The vegetation also provides habitats, niches, food and nesting sites and therefore influences the biodiversity of the ecosystem. There are feeding relationships between the marine life in food chains and food webs, at the different trophic levels of producers, herbivores and carnivores. There are predator and prey relationships and there is competition between the organisms which influence the population density of species in the ecosystem. Abiotic factors include, for example, the water level and tides. The water level / depth of water can restrict the growth of mangrove roots and affect the oxygen concentration of the water and thus the respiration of the aquatic organisms. Different mangrove vegetation / organisms can tolerate different water depths with differing degrees of exposure to the air and have varying tolerance to desiccation. The tides also affect the salinity of the water. Different species of mangrove vegetation have varying degrees of salt tolerance. Please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks 4(b) The question requirements are: • to use examples relevant to preservation of the biosphere • to refer to the role of international protocols and organisations • to assess the effectiveness of the international protocols and organisations in preservation of the biosphere. Indicative content: International protocols, for example, the agreement signed at the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 – UN Conference on Environment and Development have highlighted the need to preserve the biosphere. Both species and pollution cross national borders and trade in endangered species is also international. Oceans do not have borders and pollution from one side of the globe can affect the other side of the world; hence protocols are required to preserve the biosphere. However individual countries will still want to protect their own interests, not all nations are in agreement or signed the treaty and action plans needed to follow up the initial commitment have not been carried out. International conservation organisations include, for example the IUCN – International Union for Conservation of Nature, the WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature. Organisations such as these help in highlighting issues and in formulating the agreements between countries / governments. They are important in publicising environmental information, for example the list of threatened species and in raising charitable funds to help carry out action plans. Although effective to some extent there are still problems, for example, the continued loss of habitat and the illegal trade. Examples of biomes could include tropical rainforests or different ecosystem types, for example, coral reefs. Specific animals or species can also be used to assess the effectiveness of organisations and protocols. Please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 5

Fig. 3.1 shows some of the protected areas in the tropical savannah biome in Tanzania, East Africa. N SerengetiSerengeti NgorongoraNgorongo…

Accepted Answer

3(a) Different conservation methods protect approximately 30% of the tropical savannah ecosystems in Tanzania, almost one third of the country. Selous is the largest of many game reserves. National parks, for example the Serengeti and Ngorongora conservation area cover an extensive area. National parks e.g. Ruaha are generally smaller and fewer in number than the game reserves. These offer the most protection for wildlife with hunting banned and human activity restricted to traditional land use practices. Wildlife is conserved for intrinsic value, moral, ethical and aesthetic reasons and ecotourism is encouraged. However these have the smallest area of land designated. The largest areas of conservation and most numerous are the game reserves. These areas protect wildlife because the wildlife has an amenity and economic value. By establishing game reserves the natural environment is protected; destruction and development are prevented and wildlife protected. Tourism with safari holidays and hunting expeditions generate income. Hunting is controlled under licence and so wildlife populations are protected from becoming vulnerable or threatened with extinction. However poaching of wildlife is a problem. Game controlled areas cover large areas of land. People can live, cultivate the land and keep livestock in these areas. The use of the land and resources other than wildlife, are not restricted under law and hunting is restricted under licence. This offers wildlife some protection through the sustainable use of the land which can benefit both humans and wildlife. Anti-poaching units are situated close to the national parks. However the number of anti-poaching units indicates the problem with the illegal poaching of wildlife and emphasises the threat to and vulnerability of the wildlife. Please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(b) The question requirements are: to describe two different methods of managing the natural environment for wildlife to evaluate two different methods of managing the natural environment for wildlife to use examples. Indicative content: Other methods of managing the natural environment for wildlife by preserving the natural environment and conserving the wildlife, include for example a nature reserve, wildlife sanctuary, species protected area, forest reserve, ecological island, marine reserve or biosphere reserve. For example a marine park can effectively conserve coral reefs or a tropical rainforest is preserved by establishing a forest reserve. Evaluation of the two different methods should consider how effective the methods are in preservation and conservation, the extent to which human activity is controlled, the extent to which threats to the wildlife have been reduced. Please use level descriptors 2 30 Any scale is appropriate e. g. from biosphere reserve or a local conservation group. Methods must be different to part (a).

Question 6

Fig. 4.1 shows two examples of an ecological island. ecological island ecological island entrance pest-proof access sea fence Sipopo Maunga…

Accepted Answer

4(a) The meaning of an ecological island should be described through the use of examples. An island separated from the mainland and surrounded by sea as shown in Fig.4.1. A small habitat surrounded by different environmental conditions and different habitats e.g. a small pond in woodland. An ecological island can be natural or man-made. Man-made ecological islands e.g. a park in a city, or the ecological island created by building a pest proof fence as shown in Fig. 4.1. Other examples include wildlife parks or game reserves. Essentially an ecological island is an area that contains species that cannot mix with other populations of the species. An ecological island offers a range of conservation benefits. They can ensure the survival of vulnerable species by reducing competition for food or other resources or by excluding predation. Please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks 4(b) The question requirements are: • to discuss methods of conservation which exclude human activity • to discuss methods of conservation which involve human activity • to use examples Indicative content: Conservation methods range from strict nature reserves, isolated ecological islands and protected areas with complete exclusion of human activity. Some areas allow access though permit only or for research purposes. Other less strict reserves will allow ecotourism and educational visits but other forms of human activity are banned. National parks allow open access to visitors and recreational activities. Managed resource areas allow the sustainable use of resources within conservation areas with traditional forms of agriculture and forestry. An assessment should consider whether the preservation of species, habitats or ecosystems is more effective, if humans are excluded. An alternative perspective may consider that conservation is more successful when human activity is involved; either through direct intervention in the conservation of the species or with community involvement. Conservation is valued and considered important from an economic perspective, e.g. for ecotourism. The effectiveness of the methods used with reference to criteria such as education, research opportunities, public awareness, economic value and sustainability should be considered. Please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 7

(a) Fig. 2.1 shows part of a natural forest ecosystem before deforestation. Fig. 2.2 shows agriculture on the same land after deforestation…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) abiotic; e.g. soil / water / light / nutrient; biotic: e.g. trees / plants / vegetation / microorganisms / fungi; 2 2(a)(ii) Light and plants: light is absorbed by leaves; primary productivity / photosynthesis; energy is transferred in food chains; minerals and plants: plant absorb minerals / nutrients from soil; used for growth / secondary productivity; stored as biomass; temperature and decomposers: leaf litter provides food for decomposers / detritivores; process of decomposition returns nutrients to soil; higher temperatures increase the rate of microbial action and thus rate of decomposition; precipitation and trees: weathering of parent rock releases nutrients; nutrients are dissolved in solution; tree roots absorb nutrients from the soil; water and vegetation: vegetation cover prevents excessive run-off; water from precipitation infiltrates the soil; plants absorb water from the soil in roots 4 Question Answer Marks 2(a)(iii) loss of nutrients from the ecosystem; as nutrients are removed from the ecosystem when a crop is harvested; nutrients are not recycled; there are no deep roots to utilise nutrients from the weathering of bedrock and increased leaching; loss of soil fertility; the soil surface is more exposed; there is often no permanent vegetation cover / the vegetation cover is reduced; increased runoff results in soil erosion / soil degradation; removal of vegetation / biomass; habitat destruction; 4 2(b) maintains / restores some natural vegetation; provides habitats for organisms; food chains / webs / niche; conserves / increases biodiversity; preserves natural predators of pests; reduces need for artificial pesticides; organic matter is introduced through as leaf fall; (organically) fertilises the soil; reduces need for (artificial) fertilisers; maintains a hydrological / soil balance; permanent vegetation cover; reduces soil exposure / increase soil stability / reduces wind erosion; other economic benefits; co-operation between land use for agriculture and logging; 5 Question Answer Marks 2(c) supports nature conservation; offers environmental benefits; protects ecological balance; reduces pressure on natural resources; economic benefits; natural unspoilt areas have a value; provides opportunities for income generating activities; e.g. game reserve entrance fees / safari tours; helps create job opportunities for locals e.g. employment as rangers / guides; diversifies the economy; improves the income levels for locals; money raised can be used for the maintenance and management of the areas; for conservation / environmental management projects; socio-cultural benefits; local traditions are preserved; local community can be involved in providing services e.g.; educate the public on conservation; 5

Question 8

(a) Fig. 2.1 shows part of a natural forest ecosystem before deforestation. Fig. 2.2 shows agriculture on the same land after deforestation…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) abiotic; e.g. soil / water / light / nutrient; biotic: e.g. trees / plants / vegetation / microorganisms / fungi; 2 2(a)(ii) Light and plants: light is absorbed by leaves; primary productivity / photosynthesis; energy is transferred in food chains; minerals and plants: plant absorb minerals / nutrients from soil; used for growth / secondary productivity; stored as biomass; temperature and decomposers: leaf litter provides food for decomposers / detritivores; process of decomposition returns nutrients to soil; higher temperatures increase the rate of microbial action and thus rate of decomposition; precipitation and trees: weathering of parent rock releases nutrients; nutrients are dissolved in solution; tree roots absorb nutrients from the soil; water and vegetation: vegetation cover prevents excessive run-off; water from precipitation infiltrates the soil; plants absorb water from the soil in roots 4 Question Answer Marks 2(a)(iii) loss of nutrients from the ecosystem; as nutrients are removed from the ecosystem when a crop is harvested; nutrients are not recycled; there are no deep roots to utilise nutrients from the weathering of bedrock and increased leaching; loss of soil fertility; the soil surface is more exposed; there is often no permanent vegetation cover / the vegetation cover is reduced; increased runoff results in soil erosion / soil degradation; removal of vegetation / biomass; habitat destruction; 4 2(b) maintains / restores some natural vegetation; provides habitats for organisms; food chains / webs / niche; conserves / increases biodiversity; preserves natural predators of pests; reduces need for artificial pesticides; organic matter is introduced through as leaf fall; (organically) fertilises the soil; reduces need for (artificial) fertilisers; maintains a hydrological / soil balance; permanent vegetation cover; reduces soil exposure / increase soil stability / reduces wind erosion; other economic benefits; co-operation between land use for agriculture and logging; 5 Question Answer Marks 2(c) supports nature conservation; offers environmental benefits; protects ecological balance; reduces pressure on natural resources; economic benefits; natural unspoilt areas have a value; provides opportunities for income generating activities; e.g. game reserve entrance fees / safari tours; helps create job opportunities for locals e.g. employment as rangers / guides; diversifies the economy; improves the income levels for locals; money raised can be used for the maintenance and management of the areas; for conservation / environmental management projects; socio-cultural benefits; local traditions are preserved; local community can be involved in providing services e.g.; educate the public on conservation; 5

Question 9

(a) Fig. 1.1 is a diagram of a mangrove ecosystem, which is an example of a coastal water ecosystem. muddy roots of mangrove trees soil coa…

Accepted Answer

1(a)(i) vegetation / trees; water; soil; max 2 1(a)(ii) transition / zonation of the vegetation (with different types of mangrove adapted to the varying conditions); roots of the mangrove trees (have alternating periods of exposure to air and submergence in water); water is saline / brackish ( mangrove trees are salt tolerant / adapted to increased levels of salinity); soil is waterlogged / oxygen deficient (mangrove trees have aerial roots / breathing roots, so oxygen can diffuse from the air into these roots); mangrove tree roots (buttress, prop roots, stilt) are adapted to provide support in muddy / soft soil; max 2 1(b)(i) decrease in mangrove coverage; use or manipulation of data: e.g. the largest decrease occurs between 1980 and 1990 / 1.86 million hectares; 2 1(b)(ii) (18.79 – 15.23) = 3.56; 3.56 / 18.79 × 100 = 18.95%; 2 Question Answer Marks 1(b)(iii) (coastal water ecosystems are at risk from) human activity / natural events which destroy / disrupt / damage the ecosystem; reasons: coastal water ecosystems are used for aquaculture; rivers flowing into the ecosystem are dammed; water is drained artificially; (water cleared so) the land can be used agriculture / coastal development; timber is cut for fuelwood / charcoal industries; climate change / increase in tropical storms / increase in sea level / flooding; water pollution due to e.g. sewage/nutrients from agriculture; explanation: biodiversity is reduced; ecosystem balance / ecosystem stability is disrupted; water flow / water levels are changed; removing coastal vegetation increases coastal erosion; max 4 1(c)(i) through human intervention / conservation activities; a degraded ecosystem is improved / a destroyed ecosystem is replaced; e.g. trees are planted; organisms bred in captivity / native species are re-introduced; invasive species are removed; max 2 Question Answer Marks 1(c)(ii) any two benefits explained: filters run-off from land; reducing pollution of coastal water; provides habitats; maintains species / biodiversity; provides niche; feeding sites / breeding grounds / nesting sites for birds / nursery for fish or other organisms; sediment is trapped; stabilising roots / soil; provides storm / flood / shore protection; against tsunamis / tidal surges; max 4 1(c)(iii) less destruction / less degradation of the ecosystem; through increased education / environmental awareness; or economic benefits; through an increase in fishing stock / preventing overfishing; or incentive to further conserve; through positive feedback / as benefits to the community become apparent; max 2

Question 10

Fig. 3.1 shows global human population and estimated biodiversity from the year 1000 until 2015. 13 12 100 11 10 9 75 global 8 biodiversity…

Accepted Answer

3(a) There is a negative correlation between human population size and biodiversity. With an increase in population, there is a decrease in biodiversity. A slow increase in population relates to a slow decrease in biodiversity. An exponential increase in population relates to greater decrease in biodiversity. For example between the year 1000 and the year 1500 the population increased by approximately 0.2 billion, while biodiversity decreased by 2 units. By the time the population had reached 1 billion biodiversity decreased more than 10 units. In 2015 with a global human population of 7.4 billion biodiversity has decreased by 25 units. Human population growth has resulted in a decrease in species diversity due to the impact of human activity on ecosystems. As more land is used for urban development, roads and industry and more forest is cleared for agriculture, natural ecosystems are destroyed and habitats lost for example in tropical rainforest. An increasing human population has generated more marine, terrestrial, and freshwater pollution damaging and degrading ecosystems for example through eutrophication, reducing biodiversity. Man has disrupted the stability of ecosystems for example through the exploitation of species resulting in species extinctions. please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks 3(b) The question requirements are: • to consider sustainable ways of providing human resources • to assess to what extent these methods can provide the resources for an increasing population • to assess to what extent these methods can limit loss of biodiversity • to use examples. Indicative content: Sustainability is the use and management of resources that allows full natural replacement of the resources exploited and full recovery of the ecosystems affected by their extraction and use. Sustainable methods which provide resources and yet limit loss of biodiversity include sustainable agriculture practices, agriculture in conservation areas, resource managed areas, sustainable fishing practices and agroforestry. An assessment will consider whether degradation of the environment and the consumption of resources by the human population will continue to lead to further loss of biodiversity or whether sufficient resources for a growing population can be produced by sustainable methods halting the loss of biodiversity. Reducing population growth rates and reducing ecological footprint may also be considered. please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 11

Fig. 5.1 shows the numbers of two species of rhinoceros in South Africa between 1960 and 2010. Rhinoceros species are on the International …

Accepted Answer

5(a) Significant change has occurred in the number of black rhino with an overall decrease of 95 000 in the population between 1960 and 2010. The black rhino population was higher than the white rhino population in 1960 but lower by 2010. There was a dramatic decrease in the numbers of black rhino between 1970 and 1980 which was then followed by a slowing in the rate of decrease. The lowest population of 2500 occurred in 1990 but since then there has been gradual rise in the population to 5000 in 2010. The white rhino population shows an increase in population of 18 000 between 1960 and 2010. Although the population was lower than the black rhino until the 1980’s, there has since been a gradual increase in the population and numbers are now higher than the black rhino. Reasons for the changes in population numbers may include reference to destruction of habitat, and uncontrolled hunting in the earlier years. The establishment of protected areas; ecotourism; anti-poaching laws as well as international pressure and the status of the rhino, as an endangered species; may be considered to explain the increasing numbers.. please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks 5(b) The question requirements are: • to use examples • to consider the contribution of local action to conservation • to consider the contribution of international protocols to conservation • to assess the relative contribution of local action and international protocols in the conservation of ecosystems. Indicative content: A local community contributes to the conservation of ecosystems in a number of ways such as through the preservation of traditional farming methods; sustainable development within conservation areas including sustainable agriculture and agroforestry. The establishment of game reserves provides controlled hunting areas where the ecosystem is preserved and the development of ecotourism has economic benefits for the local community. Locals can be employed as rangers in national parks, in anti-poaching units and be involved in the monitoring of ecosystems. Through agreements a ban in the international trade in ivory and anti-poaching laws have been established. Biosphere reserves have been created; awareness has increased; and education, research, and finance for projects have developed out of international protocols. The extent of each contribution should be assessed through the use of examples. please use level descriptors 2 30 Section B descriptor levels: Descriptor Award Mark Consistently meets the level criteria Mark at top of level Meets the criteria, but with some inconsistency Middle, mark to just below top mark Meets most of level criteria, but not all convincingly Just below middle, mark to just above bottom mark On the borderline of this level and the one below Mark at bottom of level Section B descriptor levels: Section B (part a), Level descriptors 1 8–10 marks The response: • contains few errors • shows a very good understanding of the question • shows a good use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • provides a balanced answer 5–7 marks The response: • may contain some errors • shows an adequate understanding of the question • shows some use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • may lack balance 1–4 marks The response: • may contains errors • shows limited understanding of the question • shows little or no use of data or the information, where appropriate • lacks balance Section B descriptor levels: Section B (part b): Level descriptors 2 Responses: Level one, 25–30 marks • fulfil all the requirements of the question • contain a very good understanding of the content required • contain a very good balance of content • contain substantial critical and supportive evaluations • make accurate use of relevant vocabulary Level two, 19–24 marks • fulfil most of the requirements of the question • contain a good understanding of the content required • contain a good balance of content • contain some critical and supportive evaluations • make good use of relevant vocabulary Level three, 13–18 marks • fulfil some requirements of the question • contain some understanding of the content required • may contain some limited balance of content • may contain brief evaluations • make some use of relevant vocabulary Level four, 6–12 marks • fulfil limited requirements of the question • contain limited understanding of the content required • may contain poorly balanced of content • may not contain evaluations • make limited use of relevant vocabulary Section B descriptor levels: Level five, 1–5 marks • fulfil a few of the requirements of the question • contain a very limited understanding of the content required • are likely to be unbalanced and undeveloped • evaluative statements are likely to be missing • make no use of relevant vocabulary

Question 12

(a) Fig. 2.1 shows the distribution of the tundra biome and Fig. 2.2 shows the number of polar bears living in this biome. Arctic Circle, 6…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) high latitude; northern hemisphere; within Arctic Circle; surrounding the Arctic Ocean; max 2 2(a)(ii) climate; low average temperatures (–20 to 15); low average rainfall (less than 70 mm); soil; permafrost / permanently frozen soil layer; bare rocky areas / limited soil; vegetation; limiting factors for growth / productivity; vegetation is restricted to grasses, mosses, lichens, dwarf shrubs / low growing plants; treeless plains; latitude; effect on day length / insolation; ocean currents; max 4 2(a)(iii) populations are very low in some areas; less than 200 in Area 12 and Area 8 (Lancaster Sound / Kane Basin); populations are declining in 6 / 50% / examples of areas); a population range of less than 2000 in areas where the populations are declining; even in areas where the population is stable the range is only 1000–3000; there are only a few, areas where the population is currently increasing; population change and population numbers are unknown for large areas; max 4 Question Answer Marks 2(b) increase in population of polar bear prey; e.g. bearded seal; increased availability of food for other predators; e.g. ringed seal; increase in population of other predators; reduced competition; e.g. Arctic fox ; max 4 2(c) agreements / treaties are required in order to manage the environment; different nations must share a collective responsibility for the biosphere including the tundra biome; other countries can have an effect on the tundra not just those in the immediate region; problems originate in the industrialised nations far away from where the effects are felt; e.g. air pollution – greenhouse gases; resulting in global warming / rising temperatures; resulting in earlier spring melting / shrinking of sea ice; habitat loss for polar bear; e.g. marine pollution – due to shipping; oil pollution; ocean currents spread maritime pollution; impact on food web; max 6

Question 13

(a) With reference to Fig. 4.1, compare and contrast the trends in changes to forest reserves globally. Suggest reasons for the trends. [10…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Overall there is a greater decrease in forest reserves. Europe has the largest forest area in 2010 and also the largest increase, with a gain of 20 000 thousand hectares between 1990 and 2010. Although in 1990, Asia has the second lowest area of forest of all the regions with only 580 000 thousand hectares; Asia has increased forest cover between 2000 and 2010 by 10 000 thousand hectares. Decreases in forest area have occurred in S. America and Africa. These regions had the second and third highest area of forest cover of 940 000 thousand hectares and 750 000 thousand hectares in 1990. The largest decrease occurred in S. America with a loss of 80 000 thousand hectares in 20 years. Africa lost 60 000 thousand hectares with the largest decrease occurring between 1990 and 2000. There was increasing forest cover in North America cover between 1990 and 2000 but since then forest cover has remained constant at 670 000 thousand hectares. Exploitation of forests, the unsustainable harvesting of forest wood resources or use of forests for fuel wood contributes to the decrease in forest area. Rapid population growth with forests cleared to provide land for agricultural use, commercial cattle farming, plantations and urbanisation as well as building of infrastructure, dams, mining and climate change can also account for losses. Reasons for increases may include the conservation of the forest resources, forest restoration and afforestation. The more sustainable use of forest resources, alternative uses of forests for example in ecotourism, the establishment of protected areas and international agreements have also contributed to increases in forest cover. please use level descriptors 1 10 Question Answer Marks 4(b) The question requirements are: • to consider the conservation of a named ecosystem • to detail the strategies • to assess the effectiveness of the strategies. Indicative content: Content will be dependent upon the chosen example, e.g. a coral reef ecosystem or a forest ecosystem. Assessment should consider the extent to which the strategies have been effective in conserving the ecosystem or whether strategies have been ineffectual due to other factors which can impact upon the ecosystem. please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 14

Fig. 5.1 shows details of the tropical rainforests in West and Central Africa. Key tropical rainforests Africa The African tropical rainfor…

Accepted Answer

5(a) Biggest human activity is clearance of forest for subsistence farming activities (including charcoal burning and fuel wood collection), palm oil plantations, urban expansion and mining. Some of these are illegal activities. Industrial logging is also a large factor, and the clearance for logging roads also increases hunting and larger farming opportunities (palm oil, sugar and rubber) which affect the rate of loss. Increased hunting and poaching alter the balance of species and alters the structure of the rainforest plants in terms of height and species. Burning for clearance also occurs. Please use level descriptors 1 10 5(b) The question requirements are: • To show understanding of the principles underlying ecotourism • To apply the principles of ecotourism to rainforests • To assess the relative successes of ecotourism projects Ecotourism is defined as environmentally responsible travel to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and accompanying cultural features, both past and present) that promote conservation, have a low visitor impact and provide for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local peoples. Most tourism in natural areas today is not ecotourism and is not, therefore, sustainable. Ecotourism is distinguished by its emphasis on conservation, education, traveller responsibility and active community participation. Specifically, ecotourism possesses the following characteristics: • Conscientious, low-impact visitor behaviour • Sensitivity towards, and appreciation of, local cultures and biodiversity • Support for local conservation efforts • Sustainable benefits to local communities • Local participation in decision-making • Educational components for both the traveller and local communities Applying these underlying principles to rainforests such as the Congo can help conserve the rainforest. 30 Question Answer Marks 5(b) Advantages include preservation of species and the environment of the area, increased prosperity of the locals through involvement in the ecotourism, improved education, improved understanding of environment. Disadvantages include disturbance of the wildlife, damage and erosion caused by tourist numbers, increased carbon footprint of travellers, cultural erosion of traditional ways of life, travel industry is sensitive to world economic influences and this could lead to failure of projects. Please use level descriptors 2 Section B descriptor levels: Descriptor Award Mark Consistently meets the level criteria Mark at top of level Meets the criteria, but with some inconsistency Middle, mark to just below top mark Meets most of level criteria, but not all convincingly Just below middle, mark to just above bottom mark On the borderline of this level and the one below Mark at bottom of level Section B descriptor levels: level descriptors 1 Level one, 8–10 marks The response: • contains few errors • shows a very good understanding of the question • shows a good use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • provides a balanced answer Level two, 5–7 marks The response: • may contain some errors • shows an adequate understanding of the question • shows some use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • may lack balance Level three, 1–4 marks The response: • may contain errors • shows limited understanding of the question • shows little or no use of data or the information, where appropriate • lacks balance Section B descriptor levels: level descriptors 2 Responses: Level one, 25–30 marks • fulfil all the requirements of the question • contain a very good understanding of the content required • contain a very good balance of content • contain substantial critical and supportive evaluations • make accurate use of relevant vocabulary Level two, 19–24 marks • fulfil most of the requirements of the question • contain a good understanding of the content required • contain a good balance of content • contain some critical and supportive evaluations • make good use of relevant vocabulary Level three, 13–18 marks • fulfil some requirements of the question • contain some understanding of the content required • may contain some limited balance of content • may contain brief evaluations • make some use of relevant vocabulary Level four, 6–12 marks • fulfil limited requirements of the question • contain limited understanding of the content required • may contain poor balanced of content • may not contain evaluations • make limited use of relevant vocabulary Section B descriptor levels: Level five, 1–5 marks • fulfil a few requirements of the question • contain a very limited understanding of the content required • are likely to be unbalanced and undeveloped • evaluative statements are likely to be missing • make no use of relevant vocabulary

Question 15

Fig. 3.1 is an extract report on the success of rewilding projects in the United Kingdom. Rewilding is a conservation method which restores…

Question 16

Lake Chad is a large lake in northern central Africa that provides fresh water to around 30 million people in the countries of Chad, Camero…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Lake Chad has shrunk dramatically in size, with the rate of loss accelerating. The loss of water has been from the north and east. Human population relies on the lake for water to support and irrigate crops, for drinking water for animals and themselves, and for fishing (both for food and as a living). Loss of water has also led to increasing desertification in the area. Please use level descriptors 1 10 4(b) The question requirements are: • To outline factors which lead to the reduction of water supplies and stores • To describe how the loss of water changes the ecosystem and affects the lives of the people • To suggest strategies to manage the conservation of such water resources. Causes include loss of flow in rivers due to dams which also increase silting, increase in human population leads to increased use of water for irrigation, water for livestock and human drinking water. The change in weather patterns such as monsoon rains which recharge the lake failing leading to drought conditions. Deforestation, over-extraction from aquifers, pollution including global warming leading to loss of ice stores. Strategies to include seeking international cooperation for the diversion of rivers to refill lakes, encourage HEP dams to release water in regular flows, improve dredging processes to prevent silt build up, build efficient irrigation systems for farms to reduce waste, education of the population in water conservation e.g. grey water/recycling water, rain-water collection, desalinisation. Please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 17

Fig. 3.1 is an extract report on the success of rewilding projects in the United Kingdom. Rewilding is a conservation method which restores…

Question 18

Lake Chad is a large lake in northern central Africa that provides fresh water to around 30 million people in the countries of Chad, Camero…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Lake Chad has shrunk dramatically in size, with the rate of loss accelerating. The loss of water has been from the north and east. Human population relies on the lake for water to support and irrigate crops, for drinking water for animals and themselves, and for fishing (both for food and as a living). Loss of water has also led to increasing desertification in the area. Please use level descriptors 1 10 4(b) The question requirements are: • To outline factors which lead to the reduction of water supplies and stores • To describe how the loss of water changes the ecosystem and affects the lives of the people • To suggest strategies to manage the conservation of such water resources. Causes include loss of flow in rivers due to dams which also increase silting, increase in human population leads to increased use of water for irrigation, water for livestock and human drinking water. The change in weather patterns such as monsoon rains which recharge the lake failing leading to drought conditions. Deforestation, over-extraction from aquifers, pollution including global warming leading to loss of ice stores. Strategies to include seeking international cooperation for the diversion of rivers to refill lakes, encourage HEP dams to release water in regular flows, improve dredging processes to prevent silt build up, build efficient irrigation systems for farms to reduce waste, education of the population in water conservation e.g. grey water/recycling water, rain-water collection, desalinisation. Please use level descriptors 2 30

Question 19

Fig. 5.1 is a diagram that represents the stages in a succession. Time Fig. 5.1 (a) Describe and explain the stages of succession in a name…

Accepted Answer

5(a) Two types of succession are primary (from bare soil and rock) and secondary (after an environmental event such as flood or volcano activity). The origin of the succession is also a factor leading to hydrosere, xerosere or lithosere, for example. Answer should include the appropriate stages of succession for the choice made and provide some explanation of the causes of the changes at each stage, such as formation of litter to improve fertility leading to more advanced species which then outcompete the pioneer species before further development leads to climax community please use level descriptors 1 10 5(b) The question requirements are: • to understand that conserving habitats at different stages of succession is important such as wetlands • to demonstrate understanding of different methods of conservation • to assess the success of the different strategies. Indicative content: Some plagioclimax habitats are key habitats for rare species especially wetlands and marshes or have key roles such as coastal sand dunes. As a result it is important for these to be conserved at these stages of succession to preserve the habitats and the species biodiversity. A range of schemes considered to include national parks, conservation areas, SSSI, wildlife parks, marine parks, ecotourism and ecological islands. Details of the individual schemes and how they operate to include legislation, education, staffing and the nature of work carried out. The principles behind the schemes and methods used plus the potential problems. Assessment of the relative success of each scheme described linked to the effects on the habitats and species therein as well as the balance between conservation and the use by the human population. please use level descriptors 2 30 Section B descriptor levels: Descriptor Award Mark Consistently meets the level criteria Mark at top of level Meets the criteria, but with some inconsistency Middle, mark to just below top mark Meets most of level criteria, but not all convincingly Just below middle, mark to just above bottom mark On the borderline of this level and the one below Mark at bottom of level Section B descriptor levels: Section B (part (a)): 8–10 marks The response: • contains few errors • shows a very good understanding of the question • shows a good use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • provides a balanced answer 5–7 marks The response: • may contain some errors • shows an adequate understanding of the question • shows some use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • may lack balance 1–4 marks The response: • may contains errors • shows limited understanding of the question • shows little or no use of data or the information, where appropriate • lacks balance Level descriptors 1 Section B descriptor levels: Section B (part (b)): Responses: Level one, 25–30 marks • fulfil all the requirements of the question • contain a very good understanding of the content required • contain a very good balance of content • contain substantial critical and supportive evaluations • make accurate use of relevant vocabulary Level two, 19–24 marks • fulfil most of the requirements of the question • contain a good understanding of the content required • contain a good balance of content • contain some critical and supportive evaluations • make good use of relevant vocabulary Level three, 13–18 marks • fulfil some requirements of the question • contain some understanding of the content required • may contain some limited balance of content • may contain brief evaluations • make some use of relevant vocabulary Level four, 6–12 marks • fulfil limited requirements of the question • contain limited understanding of the content required • may contain poorly balanced of content • may not contain evaluations • make limited use of relevant vocabulary Level descriptors 2 Section B descriptor levels: Level five, 1–5 marks • fulfil a few of the requirements of the question • contain a very limited understanding of the content required • are likely to be unbalanced and undeveloped • evaluative statements are likely to be missing • make no use of relevant vocabulary

Question 20

Fig. 5.1 shows the relationship between average annual precipitation and temperature for some major biomes. 4500 4000 3500 tropical 3000 ra…

Accepted Answer

5(a) Abiotic factors such as light, temperature and moisture influence the tolerance of species determining the limits of where they can survive and as a result the different biomes are formed. These can also be considered limiting factors. Biotic factors include supply of food, competition through predation, for space and resources. Humans have a large effect including agricultural practices, building and introducing species to new areas. please use level descriptors 1 10 5(b) The question requirements are: • to show knowledge of ecosystems • to show knowledge of different methods of conservation methods relative to maintaining biodiversity • to assess the relative success of such methods. Indicative content: Selection of relevant ecosystem. The different methods of conservation could include National parks, nature reserves, SSSIs, zoos and safari parks. Breeding and release programmes. Education and involvement of local population, ecotourism, controlled hunting including bans and seasons, and use of legislation. Appropriate descriptions of the methods chosen and assessment of relative success. Issues raised could include problems of poaching, loss of land to local people unless they are involved, economics of protection, difficulties of enforcement, political will and education. please use level descriptors 2 30 Section B descriptor levels Descriptor Award Mark Consistently meets the level criteria Mark at top of level Meets the criteria, but with some inconsistency Middle, mark to just below top mark Meets most of level criteria, but not all convincingly Just below middle, mark to just above bottom mark On the borderline of this level and the one below Mark at bottom of level Section B descriptor levels Section B (part (a)): 8–10 marks The response: • contains few errors • shows a very good understanding of the question • shows a good use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • provides a balanced answer 5–7 marks The response: • may contain some errors • shows an adequate understanding of the question • shows some use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • may lack balance 1–4 marks The response: • may contains errors • shows limited understanding of the question • shows little or no use of data or the information, where appropriate • lacks balance Level descriptors 1 Section B descriptor levels Section B (part (b)): Responses: Level one, 25–30 marks • fulfil all the requirements of the question • contain a very good understanding of the content required • contain a very good balance of content • contain substantial critical and supportive evaluations • make accurate use of relevant vocabulary Level two, 19–24 marks • fulfil most of the requirements of the question • contain a good understanding of the content required • contain a good balance of content • contain some critical and supportive evaluations • make good use of relevant vocabulary Level three, 13–18 marks • fulfil some requirements of the question • contain some understanding of the content required • may contain some limited balance of content • may contain brief evaluations • make some use of relevant vocabulary Level four, 6–12 marks • fulfil limited requirements of the question • contain limited understanding of the content required • may contain poorly balanced of content • may not contain evaluations • make limited use of relevant vocabulary Level descriptors 2 Section B descriptor levels Level five, 1–5 marks • fulfil a few of the requirements of the question • contain a very limited understanding of the content required • are likely to be unbalanced and undeveloped • evaluative statements are likely to be missing • make no use of relevant vocabulary

Question 21

Fig. 3.1 shows the Great Limpopo Trans-Frontier Park and Conservation Area, a joint project between Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe i…

Question 22

Fig. 5.1 shows the area of susceptible drylands in each continent, and the main causes of soil deterioration in these areas. 0.9% 5.4% 39.1…

Accepted Answer

5(a) Overgrazing is responsible for most soil degradation except for North and South America. Next most responsible is deforestation particularly significant in Asia, South America and Europe. Differences are due to the nature of the lands available, the increasing aridity of the areas and the growing populations putting particular pressures on the lands in some areas, whether or not legislation and enforcement protects areas from e.g. clearance / burning etc. The difference in pressures from subsistence and mechanised industrial-level farming. 5(b) The question requirements are: • to show understanding of the need to increase agricultural production • to demonstrate how this impacts on soil quality and local habitats • to suggest how this can be managed in countries with differing levels of financial development. Indicative content: Subsistence farming in countries with low economic development leads to loss of habitats. As soil quality falls farmers who can’t afford to use fertilisers clear new land instead (slash and burn) and destroy habitats. Increasing degradation of soil promotes desertification, as soil becomes increasingly arid farming becomes increasingly difficult. Such countries lack the money for infrastructure projects such as irrigation schemes and may come to rely on funding from elsewhere increasing debt. As a consequence, despite legislation the environment is not protected very successfully. Countries with higher levels of income can farm intensively and afford the fertilisers to maintain the soil quality. As a result, they are less likely to destroy local habitats through encroachment and have the luxury of infrastructure and to be able to support environmental protection schemes. 30 Please Use Level Descriptors 2 Please Use Level Descriptors 1 Section B descriptor levels: Descriptor Award Mark Consistently meets the level criteria Mark at top of level Meets the criteria, but with some inconsistency Middle, mark to just below top mark Meets most of level criteria, but not all convincingly Just below middle, mark to just above bottom mark On the borderline of this level and the one below Mark at bottom of level Section B descriptor levels: Level Descriptors 1 Level one, 8–10 marks The response: • contains few errors • shows a very good understanding of the question • shows a good use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • provides a balanced answer Level two, 5–7 marks The response: • may contain some errors • shows an adequate understanding of the question • shows some use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • may lack balance Level three, 1–4 marks The response: • may contain errors • shows limited understanding of the question • shows little or no use of data or the information, where appropriate • lacks balance Section B descriptor levels: Level Descriptors 2 Responses: Level one, 25–30 marks • fulfil all the requirements of the question • contain a very good understanding of the content required • contain a very good balance of content • contain substantial critical and supportive evaluations • make accurate use of relevant vocabulary Level two, 19–24 marks • fulfil most of the requirements of the question • contain a good understanding of the content required • contain a good balance of content • contain some critical and supportive evaluations • make good use of relevant vocabulary Level three, 13–18 marks • fulfil some requirements of the question • contain some understanding of the content required • may contain some limited balance of content • may contain brief evaluations • make some use of relevant vocabulary Level four, 6–12 marks • fulfil limited requirements of the question • contain limited understanding of the content required • may contain poor balanced of content • may not contain evaluations • make limited use of relevant vocabulary Section B descriptor levels: Level five, 1–5 marks • fulfil a few requirements of the question • contain a very limited understanding of the content required • are likely to be unbalanced and undeveloped • evaluative statements are likely to be missing • make no use of relevant vocabulary

Question 23

Fig. 5.1 is a suggested model for the establishment of marine conservation areas worldwide. No-Use Zone No-Take Zone Buffer Zone Multiple-U…

Question 24

Fig. 5.1 is a suggested model for the establishment of marine conservation areas worldwide. No-Use Zone No-Take Zone Buffer Zone Multiple-U…

Question 25

Fig. 4.1 is a model of a biosphere conservation area. Key core area buffer area transition area settlement EE RR TT R research allowed in t…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Purpose is to conserve and preserve the ecosystem and the biodiversity within the area while allowing local people to co- exist with the preserved area and to allow for the possibilities of controlled hunting and ecotourism. Core area is left alone except for scientific research, the buffer area is where some measure of human interaction with the preserved area is allowed, and the transition area is the outer area and the final barrier between the preserved area and the rest of the region. 4(b) The question requirements are: • to demonstrate knowledge of different methods for conservation • to show understanding of the barriers to success from both political and economic factors • to assess the success of examples cited. Indicative content: The different methods of conservation could include National parks, nature reserves, SSSIs, zoos and safari parks. Breeding and release programmes. Education and involvement of local population, ecotourism, controlled hunting including bans and seasons, and use of legislation. Appropriate descriptions of the methods chosen and assessment of relative success. Issues raised could include problems of poaching, use of rangers and law enforcement personnel, loss of land to local people unless they are involved, economics of protection, difficulties of enforcement, political will and education. Money is also a factor – the local people need to see an advantage such as income from tourism and controlled hunting in order to change their ways, involvement of NGOs such as conservation charities, often areas needing conservation have low levels of economic development and funding isn’t available to support the projects 30 please use level descriptors 1 please use level descriptors 2

Question 26

Fig. 4.1 is a series of maps showing the extent of the tropical rainforest in Borneo from 1950 to 2020 with a pie chart showing some of the…

Accepted Answer

4(a) The rainforest started to disappear from the margins of the whole area though hung on in the east. The rate accelerated from 1985 through to 2010. Candidates should be aware of the date intervals shortening. From 2000 the rainforest shrank from the south towards the north. By 2020 the rate of disappearance appears to have slowed down though now the eastern area has gone. Agricultural practices are the largest contribution to the loss of rainforest with clearances for logging and pulp plantations being a big factor. Subsistence farming comprises 30% and this is reflected in the need for fertile soil so they move on and slash and burn new areas to grow their crops. Logging, mining and infrastructure have a small effect relatively – however there is no mention of illegal logging which probably has a significant contribution. please use level descriptors 1 Question Answer Marks 4(b) The question requirements are: • to describe the causes and effects of deforestation • to discuss the need for local, national and international agreements to control deforestation and the inherent difficulties • to assess the different strategies used to control deforestation. Indicative content: The effects are those of drying of soil, increased erosion and run-off and loss of fertility. The atmosphere changes and local climate is altered. Many species of animal and plant lose their habitat. Increased carbon dioxide as a result will contribute to global warming and climate change. A range of strategies to combat deforestation could be mentioned, with acknowledgement of the difficulties in obtaining agreements. Local strategies could use education, the provision of better methods of farming and soil fertility maintenance such as fertilisers, provision of seeds with guaranteed results – all to make subsistence farmers use the soils better. Encourage ecotourism with local involvement so they see the value in conserving the rainforest. National strategies include legislation and enforcement as well as supporting the local initiatives. There will be a role for NGOs in this. Cattle ranching is the largest contributor so needs to be regulated by national government, though it is hard to control. International agreements are difficult to achieve and to enforce for many political and geopolitical reasons. 30 please use level descriptors 2

Question 27

Fig. 3.1 is a report about large-scale loss in flying insect numbers worldwide. Ecological Warning as Insect Population Numbers Fall The nu…

Accepted Answer

3(a) Causes Overuse / use of pesticides, loss of habitats, lack of food, loss of farm borders with flowers, loss of gardens, increasing effects of vehicles, drainage of wetlands, climate change. Effects Disruption of food chains/webs, lack of prey/food, lack of insect predators, lack of pollinators affects plants including human crops, and loss of detritus feeders increases detritus. 3(b) The requirements for this question are: • to demonstrate understanding that steps need to be taken to manage conservation of species • to demonstrate understanding of the different strategies to manage conservation of species • to evaluate strategies to manage conservation of species and give examples Candidates should provide detailed descriptions of a range of named examples of conservation strategies including conservation areas, national parks, habitat protection (SSSIs / ecological islands), and legislation to control the use of damaging chemicals such as pesticides including banning nicotinoid containing pesticides. Ecotourism is a potential solution. Putting species on e.g. the red list of endangered species. Candidates should assess the relative merits of these strategies. 30 please use level descriptors 1 please use level descriptors 2

Question 28

Fig. 5.1 is a diagram of a ‘green city’. rainwater harvesting condensation from solar panels treated grey buildings for water from irrigati…

Accepted Answer

5(a) There are several strands to the source material: • one providing a means to reduce surface water run-off from hard surfaces by use of permeable paving materials, • another to provide green spaces and garden areas including walls and roofs to offset the issues of air pollution, heat island effect and climate change, • another to harvest renewable energy sources and reduce waste water and • one to provide for well-being by having plants and trees in the open spaces. Candidates are expected to apply understanding of the background theory to these situations and to suggest advantages and disadvantages. Advantages could include environmental such as reduced carbon emissions, reduced risk of flooding, offset to damaging effects, improved air quality and improved well-being of citizens. Some measure of helping wildlife as well. Energy saving/not using non-renewable energy resources. Recycling/re-use of waste. Disadvantages are the cost, the need for a political will, education and understanding of the people, potential for vandalism and the need to balance against the requirements of the population to function e.g. transport and the need for resources balanced against preservation. please use level descriptors 1 Question Answer Marks 5(b) The requirements for this question are: • to demonstrate a knowledge of different international protocols • to understand the problems of agreement and enforcement • to assess the relative success of these agreements • to relate the wider global situation to the green cities. Candidates may relate the concept of green cities to the wider picture of international protocols aimed at reducing the various threats to the environment. There are many protocols beginning with Montreal and Kyoto and several recent ones such as Paris and Katowice (the David Attenborough speech) aimed at atmospheric pollution and wildlife protection. Pollution does not acknowledge international boundaries. Water may also be cited as an issue (damming and over-extraction) Candidates should be able to describe the difficulties in reaching such agreements and will be able to assess success or otherwise (and may cite the USA pulling out of Paris) as well as the difficulties of enforcement. Candidates may choose to approach the issue from a global warming/climate change viewpoint, describing the different ways human population growth is impacting the environment and add in the protocols. 10 please use level descriptors 2 Question Answer Marks Section B descriptor levels: Descriptor Award Mark Consistently meets the level criteria Mark at top of level Meets the criteria, but with some inconsistency Middle, mark to just below top mark Meets most of level criteria, but not all convincingly Just below middle, mark to just above bottom mark On the borderline of this level and the one below Mark at bottom of level Section B (part a), Level descriptors 1 8–10 marks The response: • contains few errors • shows a very good understanding of the question • shows a good use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • provides a balanced answer 5–7 marks The response: • may contain some errors • shows an adequate understanding of the question • shows some use of data or the information provided, where appropriate • may lack balance 1–4 marks The response: • may contains errors • shows limited understanding of the question • shows little or no use of data or the information, where appropriate • lacks balance Question Answer Marks Section B (part b): Level descriptors 2 Responses: Level one, 25–30 marks • fulfil all the requirements of the question • contain a very good understanding of the content required • contain a very good balance of content • contain substantial critical and supportive evaluations • make accurate use of relevant vocabulary Level two, 19–24 marks • fulfil most of the requirements of the question • contain a good understanding of the content required • contain a good balance of content • contain some critical and supportive evaluations • make good use of relevant vocabulary Level three, 13–18 marks • fulfil some requirements of the question • contain some understanding of the content required • may contain some limited balance of content • may contain brief evaluations • make some use of relevant vocabulary Level four, 6–12 marks • fulfil limited requirements of the question • contain limited understanding of the content required • may contain poorly balanced of content • may not contain evaluations • make limited use of relevant vocabulary Question Answer Marks Level five, 1–5 marks • fulfil a few of the requirements of the question • contain a very limited understanding of the content required • are likely to be unbalanced and undeveloped • evaluative statements are likely to be missing • make no use of relevant vocabulary

Question 29

Fig. 4.1 describes an ecological island. What is an ecological island? An ecological island is not necessarily an island surrounded by wate…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Advantages The habitat is preserved whilst allowing access to public and scientific research. Possibly vulnerable and endangered species are protected and may thrive. Where appropriate, rare species are re-introduced and protected. Invasive and non- native species are excluded to preserve the habitat. Barriers prevent immigration and emigration where appropriate Disadvantages Costly to establish and maintain with protective measures and patrols. Could result in disruption of people’s lives and even displacement. Non-native species may have to be killed, establishing the area also draws attention to the presence of rare species (poachers and hunters). Barriers are artificial and alter the environment. Needs political will. Potential conflict with NGOs and activists. 4(b) The requirements for this question are: • to demonstrate knowledge of the methods of conservation • to show understanding of different methods • to assess the relative success of chosen examples. Candidates should use a range of examples which could include National Parks, conservation areas, game reserves, parks and zoos and ecotourism. A description of how each chosen example works with a critical assessment of the relative success of each. Candidates should make a conclusion about which methods work and to be able to justify the decision. 30 please use level descriptors 1 please use level descriptors 2

Question 30

Fig. 4.1 describes an ecological island. What is an ecological island? An ecological island is not necessarily an island surrounded by wate…

Accepted Answer

4(a) Advantages The habitat is preserved whilst allowing access to public and scientific research. Possibly vulnerable and endangered species are protected and may thrive. Where appropriate, rare species are re-introduced and protected. Invasive and non- native species are excluded to preserve the habitat. Barriers prevent immigration and emigration where appropriate Disadvantages Costly to establish and maintain with protective measures and patrols. Could result in disruption of people’s lives and even displacement. Non-native species may have to be killed, establishing the area also draws attention to the presence of rare species (poachers and hunters). Barriers are artificial and alter the environment. Needs political will. Potential conflict with NGOs and activists. 4(b) The requirements for this question are: • to demonstrate knowledge of the methods of conservation • to show understanding of different methods • to assess the relative success of chosen examples. Candidates should use a range of examples which could include National Parks, conservation areas, game reserves, parks and zoos and ecotourism. A description of how each chosen example works with a critical assessment of the relative success of each. Candidates should make a conclusion about which methods work and to be able to justify the decision. 30 please use level descriptors 1 please use level descriptors 2

Question 31

Animal breeding programmes and release into National Parks is one method of wildlife management. Fig. 3.1 shows media reports about deaths …

Accepted Answer

3(a) Advantages: Rare species can be monitored closely, encouraged to breed and mature offspring can be released into the wild. Genetic profiling is used to ensure vigour. Potential for commercial activity. International cooperation. Prevent extinction. Education. Disadvantages: Animals affected by capture and captivity, leading to health and behavioural problems. Zoos rarely able to match the wild conditions. Animals become too used to humans and are at risk in the wild, released animals seek humans causing problems. Hunting. Activism. 3(b) The question requirements are: • describe methods of conservation • for a range of ecosystems • assess the relative success of the methods. Indicative content: Candidates should demonstrate understanding of a range of conservation strategies for biodiversity, including local conservation areas, ecological islands and ecotourism and provide detailed descriptions of named examples. The role of legislation and the provision of environmental protection services (rangers), control of public access, provision of services and facilities. An assessment of the success or otherwise is required. Some reference to part (a) is likely but should not be extensive. 30 please use level descriptors 2 please use level descriptors 1

Question 32

Fig. 3.1 shows information about ecotourism in Costa Rica. Costa Rica, a country in Central America, is a popular ecotourism destination. I…

Accepted Answer

3(a) Advantages: The education of the people allows for the preservation of wildlife because it is in their interest to protect the environment as it provides jobs. Tourists get to see the environment in its natural state and are also educated to consider how they affect the environment. Species are protected within the natural state. Disadvantages: Disruption due to the infrastructure needed by tourists, changes to native lifestyles and pursuits which might disrupt the natural environment, the creation of artificial conditions and pollution from tourist activities. Creates resentment between those who benefit and others who don’t. 3(b) The question requirements are: • to recognise the need for conservation • to demonstrate understanding of a National Park and provide named examples • to demonstrate understanding of the relative success of National Parks. Indicative content: Candidates could provide details of a range of conservation strategies used in National Parks. They are expected to be able to describe these different methods with named examples. Candidates should demonstrate an understanding of the concept of declaring an area a national park, providing legislation to protect the environment, the provision of rangers and tourist facilities. A balanced argument should describe the pressures on a National Park from increasing urbanisation, demands for access, potential issues from mining, quarrying and other industrial pressures. Enforcement to combat a range of issues from littering, logging and poaching. A balanced assessment of the relative success of different methods in conserving the natural environment within a National Park, and a comparison between different examples. 30 please use level descriptors 1 please use level descriptors 2

Question 33

Animal breeding programmes and release into National Parks is one method of wildlife management. Fig. 3.1 shows media reports about deaths …

Accepted Answer

3(a) Advantages: Rare species can be monitored closely, encouraged to breed and mature offspring can be released into the wild. Genetic profiling is used to ensure vigour. Potential for commercial activity. International cooperation. Prevent extinction. Education. Disadvantages: Animals affected by capture and captivity, leading to health and behavioural problems. Zoos rarely able to match the wild conditions. Animals become too used to humans and are at risk in the wild, released animals seek humans causing problems. Hunting. Activism. 3(b) The question requirements are: • describe methods of conservation • for a range of ecosystems • assess the relative success of the methods. Indicative content: Candidates should demonstrate understanding of a range of conservation strategies for biodiversity, including local conservation areas, ecological islands and ecotourism and provide detailed descriptions of named examples. The role of legislation and the provision of environmental protection services (rangers), control of public access, provision of services and facilities. An assessment of the success or otherwise is required. Some reference to part (a) is likely but should not be extensive. 30 please use level descriptors 2 please use level descriptors 1

Question 34

(a) Fig. 2.1 shows the mass of waste generated per person in seven countries in Europe in 2016. 24 000 22 000 20 000 18 000 16 000 14 000 m…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) 2; 1 2(a)(ii) Germany: 3120; Finland: 13 440; 2 2(a)(iii) any two from: education / advertising / raise awareness; economic incentive / economic penalty; legislation / laws / regulations; increase, availability of recycling points / accessibility; idea of simple / easy recycling, system; 2 2(a)(iv) max [4] total: max three benefits: can be used for, heating / electricity or provides a form of energy; idea of gets rid of large quantities of waste / doesn’t take up (land) space / land can be used for other purpose; avoids landfill / landfills full; idea of reduces named pollution e.g. water pollution / leaching / plastics in ocean / soil pollution / smell / visual pollution; reduces methane production (compared to landfills); max three negative impacts: release of toxic / poisonous / acid(ic), gases or substances or chemicals; produces ash / particulates / smoke / smog; produces carbon dioxide / greenhouse gas ; leads to respiratory / breathing problem / lung problem / named condition e.g. asthma; some things cannot be burnt; 4 Question Answer Marks 2(a)(v) any four or developed argument from: benefits: Europe, has disposed of its waste / has less need for landfill; waste can be reused or repurposed or recycle in import country import country gains money; more jobs (in import country); negatives: import country has to pay for disposal; increases waste in import country / waste still hasn’t been disposed of; creates imbalance between HICs and LICs / shifting the responsibility onto LIC; stated pollution event related to waste disposal in import country e.g. increased air pollution / increased carbon footprint; transport costs / energy implication of transport; e.g. uses fossil fuels stated pollution event related to transporting e.g. produces CO2 during transport / leakage / increases carbon footprint 4 2(b)(i) any one from: sewage is hazardous / contains diseases / leakage during transport / ocean pollution; food decomposes / biodegradable; smell; quantities too large to transport; 1 2(b)(ii) any two from: part of (Antarctic) treaty / international agreement; stated pollution e.g. visual / plastics in ocean / pristine environment; stated example of harm to animals or plants e.g. reduce biodiversity / disrupts food chains; introduce diseases; 2 Question Answer Marks 2(c) any three from: permit for travel; rules on what can be taken in or out; restricted / limited, numbers / restrictions on who can enter; restrictions on time of year; restricted areas / zoning of areas / controlled areas / areas for just scientists / no go areas / limited entry points / named method of zoning / create national park; regulated tour providers only / guides needed; state or government-controlled facilities; high cost to enter area; controlled method of transport; fines; 3

Question 35

(a) Light pollution is caused by the use of artificial light. Light pollution has been linked to a rapid decrease in insect populations. (i…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) any one from: increased (human) population; (increased) urbanisation / electricity more accessible / (more) industrialised; decreased cost of lights; increase in wealth for some people / people can afford electricity / decrease cost of electricity; 3(a)(ii) any two or developed from: insects are pollinators; reduce food crops / less food for people; loss of biodiversity / disrupting food chain / food web; insects, are food for other animals / are decomposers; biological control; 2 3(b)(i) 250; 1 3(b)(ii) A: every 4 days; B: no spray; 2 Question Answer Marks 3(b)(iii) any two or developed from: pest resistant crops / GM crops; biological control; companion planting / planting sacrificial plants; mechanical control or named example picking pest by hand / nets / cages / pheromone traps; release sterile insects; 2 3(b)(iv) random (sampling); method described: each field given a number or letter / use a grid; three fields picked from a hat / number generator; 3 3(b)(v) max [4] total: max three benefits: (equipment is) inexpensive; easy to use / little training needed; lots of insects collected; insects not harmed / insects are alive; crops not harmed; max three limitations: does not work well in short or dense vegetation / doesn’t sample from within vegetation; net easily damaged; labour intensive / time consuming / non-automatic / a person has to do it; in-built bias / choose where to sweep; non-selective for type of insect; insects, escape / fall out / fly out / move away from net / doesn’t collect insects that attach firmly to vegetation; 4

Question 36

(a) A conservationist uses aerial photographs to estimate the population of a species of bird. Fig. 3.1 shows a drawing of the position of …

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) A4: 4; D3: 5; 2 3(a)(ii) max [4] benefits max 3: can be counted remotely; data can be checked / hard copy of data; avoids bias; large areas can be covered; automated; doesn’t harm the birds / birds not disturbed; limitations max 3: relies on photographing all the birds / birds move; need aeroplane or satellite or drone to take the images / costly; difficult to count if birds on a grid line; reliant on suitable weather conditions; reliant on lack of dense groundcover; potential distortion (due to oblique angle); difficult to identify species of bird; 4 3(b)(i) 0.44; (1 – M1 =) 0.56; 2 3(b)(ii) Z is more diverse (than Y); 1 3(c)(i) any three from: tag / named example e.g. leg rings / tags / chip; recapture idea of capture: marked AND unmarked / random capture; named method of estimating population: Lincoln index; 3 Question Answer Marks 3(c)(ii) any two from: no death / no change in survival rate; no births; no migration; sampling methods are identical to first capture; random mixing of population; 2 3(d)(i) 5; 1 3(d)(ii) algae  zooplankton  (sandhill) crane; OR plants/seeds  (sandhill) crane  eagle 1 3(e) any three from: restrict number of birds hunted / number of birds killed; restricted times/season for hunting; enables birds to reproduce; birds given time to fatten (ready for migration); (sign) education / awareness; 3 3(f) loss of habitat / wetlands dry up; alter migration; loss of other species / loss of food source / disrupt food chain; introduces, invasive species/predators; 4

Question 37

(a) A conservationist uses aerial photographs to estimate the population of a species of bird. Fig. 3.1 shows a drawing of the position of …

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) A4: 4; D3: 5; 2 3(a)(ii) max [4] benefits max 3: can be counted remotely; data can be checked / hard copy of data; avoids bias; large areas can be covered; automated; doesn’t harm the birds / birds not disturbed; limitations max 3: relies on photographing all the birds / birds move; need aeroplane or satellite or drone to take the images / costly; difficult to count if birds on a grid line; reliant on suitable weather conditions; reliant on lack of dense groundcover; potential distortion (due to oblique angle); difficult to identify species of bird; 4 3(b)(i) 0.44; (1 – M1 =) 0.56; 2 3(b)(ii) Z is more diverse (than Y); 1 3(c)(i) any three from: tag / named example e.g. leg rings / tags / chip; recapture idea of capture: marked AND unmarked / random capture; named method of estimating population: Lincoln index; 3 Question Answer Marks 3(c)(ii) any two from: no death / no change in survival rate; no births; no migration; sampling methods are identical to first capture; random mixing of population; 2 3(d)(i) 5; 1 3(d)(ii) algae  zooplankton  (sandhill) crane; OR plants/seeds  (sandhill) crane  eagle 1 3(e) any three from: restrict number of birds hunted / number of birds killed; restricted times/season for hunting; enables birds to reproduce; birds given time to fatten (ready for migration); (sign) education / awareness; 3 3(f) loss of habitat / wetlands dry up; alter migration; loss of other species / loss of food source / disrupt food chain; introduces, invasive species/predators; 4

Question 38

(a) Fig. 2.1 shows a photograph of an area of densely forested land affected by human activity. Fig. 2.1 (i) Suggest reasons why there is a…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) any two from: 2 wood used for fuel / timber / export; increased human population; land cleared for: agriculture / mineral extraction / hydroelectric or reservoir projects / homes / buildings / roads; fire break; habitat loss; AVP; 2(a)(ii) any three from: 3 habitat loss; alters growing conditions, e.g. temperature / moisture / light / wind; increases isolation / separation between forest communities; movement of plants and animals is inhibited / some will migrate; trees are producers so less energy enters food chains; restricts breeding / gene flow; increase in invasive plants; 2(b) any three from: 3 by photosynthesis; chlorophyll (in leaves) / in chloroplasts; captures light energy / uses sunlight; carbon dioxide + water → oxygen + glucose OR 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 ; 2(c)(i) M1 – 1000 − 23 000 OR 24 000; 2 ((M1  1000)  100 =) 2400; 2(c)(ii) any one from: 1 conifer AND absorbs / stores more carbon (dioxide); conifer AND grows all year round; 2(d)(i) suitable linear scale; 4 axis labels AND units; bars not touching AND of equal width; correct plotting of bars; 2(d)(ii) more land space / lower population density / more concerned about climate change / wealth / more suitable conditions / AVP; 1 grow trees for food;

Question 39

Fig. 3.1 shows a photograph of Stockton mine, a large coal mine in New Zealand. Fig. 3.1 (a) Coal is a fossil fuel. It is a non-renewable e…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) any one from: 1 oil; natural gas; uranium / nuclear; 3(a)(ii) any two from: 2 idea of inequality in global energy resources / more reserves in some countries than others; requires import of energy resource or electricity; limited alternatives of fossil fuels / reduction in a natural energy resource / some countries rely heavily on fossil fuels / main energy source; cost of energy will go up; 3(a)(iii) advantage: 2 existing resources last longer; disadvantage: does not solve the problem of finding an alternative; difficult to police / manage rationing strategy; 3(b)(i) any five from: 5 reference to where sampling will take place / mapping sampling points / random or systematic sampling stated or described; (small) hole for snail to fall into; count all (Mount Augustus) snail in trap; mark shells; with, e.g. correction fluid, nail varnish, marker pen; release back to same location; repeat (after at least 24 hours); repeat for different locations; 3(b)(ii) any two from: 2 all members of the population mix randomly; marks are not lost between samples; the mark does not harm the animal, e.g. making it more obvious to predators; the marks do not affect the chances of recapture; the animals are active; 3(c)(i) 4077; 1 3(c)(ii) any one from: 1 initially population increased; general decrease in population; since 2012; 3(c)(iii) (30% mortality) 15 (dead); 2 (50 – 15 =) 35; 3(c)(iv) any two from: 2 to protect from predators; to have a genetic record / for research or study; to ensure species does not become extinct; breeding programme; 3(d)(i) earthworm; 1 3(d)(ii) any one from: 1 rats become resistant to the poison; may affect non-target species / may poison other animals that eat the rat; builds-up in food chain / biomagnification; 3(e)(i) negative value / – symbol; 2 2; 3(e)(ii) 6.6 / 7; 1 3(e)(iii) any one from: 1 anomalous result; snail has disease / illness; 3(e)(iv) diet B is better because the snails increase more in mass (than A); 1

Question 40

(a) The photograph in Fig. 2.1 shows an area of forested land that has been cleared. Fig. 2.1 (i) Suggest reasons for the land clearance in…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) any two from: 2 wood used for fuel / timber / export; increased human population; land cleared for agriculture / mineral extraction / hydroelectric or reservoir projects / homes / buildings / roads; 2(a)(ii) any three from: 3 can become invasive; outcompetes / competition with other plants; example given, e.g. grows taller; so receives more sunlight; may not be edible to animals / contains toxins / toxic to animals; leads to loss of biodiversity; disrupts food web / chains; 2(b)(i) less or decreasing tropical forest / more tropical forest being destroyed; 1 2(b)(ii) M1 15.8 – 12 / 3.8; 2 (M1  15.8  100) 24.051 / 24.05 / 24.1 / 24; or M1 15.9 – 12 / 3.9; (M1  15.9  100) 24.528 / 24.53 / 24.5 / 25; 2(b)(iii) any one from: 1 increased awareness of importance of trees; international pressure; reforestation / afforestation initiatives; 2(c) any four from: 4 CO2 removal; by photosynthesis; by growing trees; CO2 storage; by mature trees; reduction in global warming / climate change; reference to water cycle, e.g. increases interception, increases infiltration, decreases run-off; idea that young forests remove more CO2 than existing or mature forests; tree (roots) improve soil (structure); reduces changes of mass movement / landslides; reduces soil erosion; increases biodiversity / provides habitat; 2(d)(i) suitable linear scale; 4 axis labels and units; bars of equal width and not touching; correct plotting / correct height of bars; 2(d)(ii) 8042.857; 2 8043 (answer given to nearest whole number); 2(d)(iii) any three from: 3 southern Africa; south of equator / along tropic of Capricorn; north of tropic of Cancer; coastal Australia; 2(d)(iv) any three from: 3 climate change / enhanced greenhouse effect; leads to extreme weather / high temperatures; leads to drought; increased lightning (strikes); controlled fires getting out of control;

Question 41

(a) Fig. 2.1 shows a photograph of an area of densely forested land affected by human activity. Fig. 2.1 (i) Suggest reasons why there is a…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) any two from: 2 wood used for fuel / timber / export; increased human population; land cleared for: agriculture / mineral extraction / hydroelectric or reservoir projects / homes / buildings / roads; fire break; habitat loss; AVP; 2(a)(ii) any three from: 3 habitat loss; alters growing conditions, e.g. temperature / moisture / light / wind; increases isolation / separation between forest communities; movement of plants and animals is inhibited / some will migrate; trees are producers so less energy enters food chains; restricts breeding / gene flow; increase in invasive plants; 2(b) any three from: 3 by photosynthesis; chlorophyll (in leaves) / in chloroplasts; captures light energy / uses sunlight; carbon dioxide + water → oxygen + glucose OR 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 ; 2(c)(i) M1 – 1000 − 23 000 OR 24 000; 2 ((M1  1000)  100 =) 2400; 2(c)(ii) any one from: 1 conifer AND absorbs / stores more carbon (dioxide); conifer AND grows all year round; 2(d)(i) suitable linear scale; 4 axis labels AND units; bars not touching AND of equal width; correct plotting of bars; 2(d)(ii) more land space / lower population density / more concerned about climate change / wealth / more suitable conditions / AVP; 1 grow trees for food;

Question 42

Fig. 3.1 shows a photograph of Stockton mine, a large coal mine in New Zealand. Fig. 3.1 (a) Coal is a fossil fuel. It is a non-renewable e…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) any one from: 1 oil; natural gas; uranium / nuclear; 3(a)(ii) any two from: 2 idea of inequality in global energy resources / more reserves in some countries than others; requires import of energy resource or electricity; limited alternatives of fossil fuels / reduction in a natural energy resource / some countries rely heavily on fossil fuels / main energy source; cost of energy will go up; 3(a)(iii) advantage: 2 existing resources last longer; disadvantage: does not solve the problem of finding an alternative; difficult to police / manage rationing strategy; 3(b)(i) any five from: 5 reference to where sampling will take place / mapping sampling points / random or systematic sampling stated or described; (small) hole for snail to fall into; count all (Mount Augustus) snail in trap; mark shells; with, e.g. correction fluid, nail varnish, marker pen; release back to same location; repeat (after at least 24 hours); repeat for different locations; 3(b)(ii) any two from: 2 all members of the population mix randomly; marks are not lost between samples; the mark does not harm the animal, e.g. making it more obvious to predators; the marks do not affect the chances of recapture; the animals are active; 3(c)(i) 4077; 1 3(c)(ii) any one from: 1 initially population increased; general decrease in population; since 2012; 3(c)(iii) (30% mortality) 15 (dead); 2 (50 – 15 =) 35; 3(c)(iv) any two from: 2 to protect from predators; to have a genetic record / for research or study; to ensure species does not become extinct; breeding programme; 3(d)(i) earthworm; 1 3(d)(ii) any one from: 1 rats become resistant to the poison; may affect non-target species / may poison other animals that eat the rat; builds-up in food chain / biomagnification; 3(e)(i) negative value / – symbol; 2 2; 3(e)(ii) 6.6 / 7; 1 3(e)(iii) any one from: 1 anomalous result; snail has disease / illness; 3(e)(iv) diet B is better because the snails increase more in mass (than A); 1

Question 43

(a) Brazil’s Atlantic forest contains approximately 6000 plant species, 263 amphibian species and 160 species of mammal, which are found no…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) M1 two correct plots; M2 bars same width as existing bars; 2 3(a)(ii) 1999 AND 2000; 1 3(a)(iii) any three from: M1 population increase; M2 logging / timber; M3 (wild)fire; M4 drought / lack of water; M5 disease; M6 invasive species; M7 (bio) fuels; land needed for: M8 housing / buildings / urbanisation / industrialisation / construction / commercial / business; M9 roads / infrastructure; M10 agriculture / production of food / grazing / crops / farms; M11 mineral extraction / mining; M12 hydroelectric / reservoirs; 3 Question Answer Marks 3(b) any three from: M1 idea of: ($21 million of) Brazil’s debt (to USA) cancelled; money is then invested in ways to improve the forest: M2 idea of preserving or increasing biodiversity; M3 ecotourism; M4 national parks; M5 afforestation / re-forestation / replanting; M6 compensating farmers / helping people financially / financial incentive to individuals (to not cut down trees); 3 3(c)(i) any three from: M1 no information on number of houses in street; M2 may be too much data or too little data, to analyse; M3 only women selected / ora; M4 only 2030 year olds selected / no stated other age range; M5 only Sao Paulo selected / only one street or area selected; M6 data is not representative; M7 data could be biased; 3 3(c)(ii) quick or easy / do not have to read long responses / answers are limited or quantifiable / not ambiguous / does not need interpretation / AVP; 1

Question 44

Fig. 3.1 shows a leatherback turtle. Fig. 3.1 (a) Fig. 3.2 shows the location of three populations of leatherback turtles. Key population A…

Accepted Answer

3(a) any two from: west coast of South America; west coast of Mexico; west coast of Central America; south tropic of Cancer; north/ south tropic of Capricorn; east Pacific Ocean; north and south of equator; 2 3(b) any two comparisons from: NW Atlantic population increasing AND E Pacific decreasing overall; past-present: NW Atlantic gradual increase AND E Pacific (gradual) decrease; present-future: sharp increase from present to future for NW Atlantic AND E Pacific (gradual) decrease; comparison of trend with both populations from past / present / future; 2 3(c)(i) any two from: more, greenhouse gases / carbon dioxide / methane in atmosphere; which absorb infrared radiation; increased (enhanced) greenhouse effect / global warming; 2 3(c)(ii) impact: (population decrease or increase) with any two valid reasons: greater number of females : males in the population; limited number of (suitable males) mates; higher temperatures may damage eggs; one male can mate with many females; 2 Question Answer Marks 3(c)(iii) any one impact and one reason: rising sea level / extreme weather; wash eggs away; habitat loss; loss of food sources; more invasive species; greater competition / predation; possible migration; ocean acidification; too acidic loss of food source of turtles; AVP; 2 3(c)(iv) any one from: legislation; use line fishing instead of nets; no fishing in areas where turtles live; education / awareness of dangers of trapping turtles in nets; 1 3(d) max [3] benefits from: no predation; diseases / illnesses can be treated; prior selection of mates; allows research of species; max [3] limitations from: expensive; difficult to support a large breeding programme; behaviour / breeding / eating pattern, of captive animals may be affected; conditions may never be suitable to release animals; eggs have to be harvested from the wild; AVP; 4

Question 45

Fig. 3.1 shows a leatherback turtle. Fig. 3.1 (a) Fig. 3.2 shows the location of three populations of leatherback turtles. Key population A…

Accepted Answer

3(a) any two from: west coast of South America; west coast of Mexico; west coast of Central America; south tropic of Cancer; north/ south tropic of Capricorn; east Pacific Ocean; north and south of equator; 2 3(b) any two comparisons from: NW Atlantic population increasing AND E Pacific decreasing overall; past-present: NW Atlantic gradual increase AND E Pacific (gradual) decrease; present-future: sharp increase from present to future for NW Atlantic AND E Pacific (gradual) decrease; comparison of trend with both populations from past / present / future; 2 3(c)(i) any two from: more, greenhouse gases / carbon dioxide / methane in atmosphere; which absorb infrared radiation; increased (enhanced) greenhouse effect / global warming; 2 3(c)(ii) impact: (population decrease or increase) with any two valid reasons: greater number of females : males in the population; limited number of (suitable males) mates; higher temperatures may damage eggs; one male can mate with many females; 2 Question Answer Marks 3(c)(iii) any one impact and one reason: rising sea level / extreme weather; wash eggs away; habitat loss; loss of food sources; more invasive species; greater competition / predation; possible migration; ocean acidification; too acidic loss of food source of turtles; AVP; 2 3(c)(iv) any one from: legislation; use line fishing instead of nets; no fishing in areas where turtles live; education / awareness of dangers of trapping turtles in nets; 1 3(d) max [3] benefits from: no predation; diseases / illnesses can be treated; prior selection of mates; allows research of species; max [3] limitations from: expensive; difficult to support a large breeding programme; behaviour / breeding / eating pattern, of captive animals may be affected; conditions may never be suitable to release animals; eggs have to be harvested from the wild; AVP; 4

Question 46

(a) Fig. 3.1 shows the European bee‑eater bird. Fig. 3.1 A scientist investigates whether the number of European bee‑eaters can be predicte…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) to get representative data; 1 3(a)(ii) anomalous result circled; 1 3(a)(iii) any one from: (number of birds can be predicted using sound recordings because) songs per minute increases as number of birds increases; positive correlation between number of birds and songs per minute; 1 Question Answer Marks 3(a)(iv) any two from: time consuming / 3 days of recordings to listen to; difficult to identify the song of the European bee-eaters compared to other birds; other sounds other than birds might interfere with the recording; birds all singing at once; same bird could be counted more than once; AVP; 2 3(a)(v) any one from: birds not disturbed; recordings can be left for a long time to run / automated; idea of permanent record / data can be checked; big data that can be analysed by computer; eliminates error if analysed by computer; AVP; 1 3(b)(i) (250  235)  124 / 473.79; 474; 2 3(b)(ii) decreases AND any one from: lower proportion of marked birds in total population; greater mixing of marked released birds with total population; lower recapture of marked birds in second sample; 1 3(c)(i) any three from: reintroducing species; reducing active management of wildlife; allowing natural forest regeneration; idea of letting nature manage itself / idea an area reverts back to natural state; 3 Question Answer Marks 3(c)(ii) any two from: decrease in competition; decrease in predation; more food; ban on hunting; climatic conditions; (seasonal) migration; AVP; 2 3

Question 47

(a) Fig. 3.1 shows the European bee‑eater bird. Fig. 3.1 A scientist investigates whether the number of European bee‑eaters can be predicte…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) to get representative data; 1 3(a)(ii) anomalous result circled; 1 3(a)(iii) any one from: (number of birds can be predicted using sound recordings because) songs per minute increases as number of birds increases; positive correlation between number of birds and songs per minute; 1 Question Answer Marks 3(a)(iv) any two from: time consuming / 3 days of recordings to listen to; difficult to identify the song of the European bee-eaters compared to other birds; other sounds other than birds might interfere with the recording; birds all singing at once; same bird could be counted more than once; AVP; 2 3(a)(v) any one from: birds not disturbed; recordings can be left for a long time to run / automated; idea of permanent record / data can be checked; big data that can be analysed by computer; eliminates error if analysed by computer; AVP; 1 3(b)(i) (250  235)  124 / 473.79; 474; 2 3(b)(ii) decreases AND any one from: lower proportion of marked birds in total population; greater mixing of marked released birds with total population; lower recapture of marked birds in second sample; 1 3(c)(i) any three from: reintroducing species; reducing active management of wildlife; allowing natural forest regeneration; idea of letting nature manage itself / idea an area reverts back to natural state; 3 Question Answer Marks 3(c)(ii) any two from: decrease in competition; decrease in predation; more food; ban on hunting; climatic conditions; (seasonal) migration; AVP; 2 3

Question 48

Fig. 1.1 shows a vertical aquaculture farm. Content removed due to copyright restrictions. Fig. 1.1 In Fig. 1.1, seaweed grows from ropes u…

Accepted Answer

Question Answer Marks 1(a)(i) any three from: 3 increasing global temperatures / global warming; extreme or severe weather; examples of extreme weather, e.g. drought / flooding / hurricanes; rising sea levels; (leading to) loss of land (for crops or agriculture); non-optimum conditions for crop growth (due to climate change); crop failure / reduced crop yield / less food; 1(a)(ii) any three from: 3 seaweed act as carbon sinks / stores / shellfish act as carbon sinks / stores; seaweed absorbs or uses carbon dioxide during photosynthesis; seaweed is fast growing so large volumes of carbon dioxide removed; provide an alternate food source other than meat based diet; (acts as raw ingredient in many products so) reduces need to extract other raw ingredients; (biofuels) reduce need for fossil fuels; 1(a)(iii) any one from: 1 habitat for marine wildlife; storm-surge protection; improved food security; high (aquatic) crop density or yield; 1(b)(i) any three from: 3 overall increase; 1978 to (1987–)1990 no change or little change / stable; decrease (2005–)2006 to 2007; relevant quoted data trend; 1(b)(ii) any one from: 1 extreme weather or description, e.g. storms / hurricanes; disease; unfavourable growing conditions or description; outcompeted by other species; competition from other ocean activities / industries; 1(c) any two from: 2 large area of ocean needed; limits (other) activities that can take place in ocean; competition with fishing / traditional marine harvesting; concern over impact on native species; increase in pollution (from boats); 1(d) any three from or developed: 3 legislation / international agreement; sustainable harvesting; protected areas; stated fisheries regulation: quotas / catch limits / closed seasons; changes to net size (protects juveniles) / changes to fishing method such as pole and line (reduces bycatch); 1(e)(i) any three from: 3 ice sheets; glaciers; lakes; rivers / streams; swamps; marshes; permafrost; 1(e)(ii) any three from: 3 nitrogen; oxygen; carbon dioxide; argon / noble gases; 1(f) any three from: 3 temperature; humidity; oxygen; carbon dioxide; salinity; (sun)light; pH;

Question 49

(a) Bats are flying nocturnal mammals. They are active at night time and feed on insects. Fig. 2.1 shows a bat. This species of bat has a w…

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) idea of a comparison with a control / identify anomalous results; 1 2(a)(ii) No and peak bat activity has low insect numbers / ORA; 1 2(a)(iii) data is only for bat activity / no information on number of bats / same bat could be counted numerous times or not counted 1 at all; 2(b) any two from: 2 fit tracking devices to the bats; monitor by GPS; use radio tracking; put electronic (motion) detectors at different distances from the cave; 2(c) any three from: 3 international agreement or cooperation; to ensure international trade in bats does not threaten the survival of the species / cause extinction; prevents illegal trade / poaching; provides information / updates on endangered status of species; raise awareness / education (of bats); 2(d) max four: 4 max three benefits: quicker than using other methods e.g. sweep net; a lot of insects collected; low skill level needed to operate; could survey a wide area; max three limitations: cost of equipment; insects may be killed or harmed; only collects insects where suction device is pointed; equipment might be heavy to use; requires fuel or battery (unlike a sweep net);

Question 50

Rhinoceros are at risk from climate change. (a) A scientist uses capture-mark-recapture to record the number of rhinoceros in an area. (i) …

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) any one from: 1 M1 may stress or frighten the animals; M2 increased risk of predation; M3 reduces chance of breeding success; M4 time consuming; 2(a)(ii) n1 (total) number of individuals captured in first sample; 3 n2 number of individuals captured in second sample both marked and unmarked; m2 number of marked individuals recaptured in second sample; 2(b) any three from: 3 M1 (only) continent of Africa; M2 highest in south(east) of Africa / mostly southern tip of continent; M3 (highest in) region of Tropic of Capricorn (in Africa) / mostly south of Equator / mostly southern hemisphere; M4 relevant quoted data; e.g. 1001–2500 in South of Africa 2(c)(i) 1970–1975 circled; 1 2(c)(ii) any three from: 3 M1 national park created; M2 hunting or poaching ban; M3 patrols / surveillance; M4 international protection e.g. IUCN red list; M5 increased awareness / education (on conservation); M6 captive breeding programme; 2(d)(i) March / Mar; 1 2(d)(ii) 10; 1 2(d)(iii) any three from: 3 M1 high rainfall; M2 high temperatures bake soil; M3 ground cannot absorb water; M4 leads to flooding; M5 climate change leads to extreme weather; 2(d)(iv) provides place to avoid (flood)water / mounds provide high ground; 1 2(d)(v) any two from: 2 M1 predation; M2 hunting / poaching; M3 competition for named resource, e.g., food / water / shelter / space; M4 disease / pests;

Question 51

Albatross are birds. Many of the 22 species of albatross are listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. …

Accepted Answer

2(a) any two from: 2 M1 identifies threat status of organisms or species; M2 monitors, organisms / ecosystems; M3 raises awareness; M4 aims to influence policies or laws in favour of biodiversity; 2(b) any two from: 2 M1 increased, rainfall / flooding / sea level rise, washes away nests; M2 increased, storms / wind / extreme weather, blows away nests; M3 increased temperature / lack of rainfall, dries out or cracks mud; M4 loss of land due to sea level rise so less available land to build nests; M5 this increases competition for available land; 2(c) M1 phytoplankton; 2 M2 total of four levels and with arrows in correct direction; phytoplankton → small fish → large fish → albatross 2(d)(i) M1 don’t need to kill the albatross; 2 M2 (albatross are) listed in (IUCN) Red List / idea of being endangered or threatened; 2(d)(ii) M1 3.88 g per g circled; 2 M2 biomagnification / concentration (of toxins) increases up a food chain; 2(e) M1 tag or (radio) tracker fitted to bird; 2 M2 (location transmitted which is) received by GPS; 2(f)(i) tally used with 34 shown; 1 2(f)(ii) using large numbers of people / general public, to obtain data; 1 2(f)(iii) total four from: 4 max three benefits: M1 large area can be sampled; M2 do not need to go to where albatrosses are / Antarctica is difficult to get to; M3 does not disturb albatrosses / does not disturb environment; M4 quick to sample / quick to take images; M5 birds are not counted twice (in static image); max three limitations: M6 idea of big data / time consuming (to count or analyse all images); M7 idea of albatross huddled together so difficult to see or count individual birds; M8 can’t be used when cloudy; M9 expense (of satellite); M10 cannot identify different species; 2(g) M1  sum of (total); 3 M2 n number of individuals of each species (present in the sample); M3 N total number of all individuals in all species (present in sample);

Question 52

Rhinoceros are at risk from climate change. (a) A scientist uses capture-mark-recapture to record the number of rhinoceros in an area. (i) …

Accepted Answer

2(a)(i) any one from: 1 M1 may stress or frighten the animals; M2 increased risk of predation; M3 reduces chance of breeding success; M4 time consuming; 2(a)(ii) n1 (total) number of individuals captured in first sample; 3 n2 number of individuals captured in second sample both marked and unmarked; m2 number of marked individuals recaptured in second sample; 2(b) any three from: 3 M1 (only) continent of Africa; M2 highest in south(east) of Africa / mostly southern tip of continent; M3 (highest in) region of Tropic of Capricorn (in Africa) / mostly south of Equator / mostly southern hemisphere; M4 relevant quoted data; e.g. 1001–2500 in South of Africa 2(c)(i) 1970–1975 circled; 1 2(c)(ii) any three from: 3 M1 national park created; M2 hunting or poaching ban; M3 patrols / surveillance; M4 international protection e.g. IUCN red list; M5 increased awareness / education (on conservation); M6 captive breeding programme; 2(d)(i) March / Mar; 1 2(d)(ii) 10; 1 2(d)(iii) any three from: 3 M1 high rainfall; M2 high temperatures bake soil; M3 ground cannot absorb water; M4 leads to flooding; M5 climate change leads to extreme weather; 2(d)(iv) provides place to avoid (flood)water / mounds provide high ground; 1 2(d)(v) any two from: 2 M1 predation; M2 hunting / poaching; M3 competition for named resource, e.g., food / water / shelter / space; M4 disease / pests;

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52	see sheet	16	8291/23 Oct/Nov 2025

Questions119 pages

Mark scheme52 answers

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Questions as text

Q1 · A lake is an example of an ecosystem 8291/21 May/June 2017

Q2 · Changes in the world’s biodiversity according to the Living Planet Index from 1970 to 2003 8291/21 May/June 2017

Q3 · A mangrove ecosystem, which is an example of a coastal water ecosystem 8291/22 May/June 2017

Q4 · A mangrove ecosystem, which is an example of a coastal water ecosystem 8291/23 May/June 2017

Q5 · Some of the protected areas in the tropical savannah biome in Tanzania, East Africa 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2017

Q6 · Two examples of an ecological island 8291/21 May/June 2018

Q7 · Part of a natural forest ecosystem before deforestation 8291/22 May/June 2018

Q8 · Part of a natural forest ecosystem before deforestation 8291/23 May/June 2018

Q9 · A diagram of a mangrove ecosystem, which is an example of a coastal water ecosystem 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2018

Q10 · Global human population and estimated biodiversity from the year 1000 until 2015 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2018

Q11 · The numbers of two species of rhinoceros in South Africa between 1960 and 2010 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2018

Q12 · The distribution of the tundra biome and Fig 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2018

Q13 · With reference to Fig 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2018

Q14 · Details of the tropical rainforests in West and Central Africa 8291/21 May/June 2019

Q15 · An extract report on the success of rewilding projects in the United Kingdom 8291/22 May/June 2019

Q16 · Lake Chad is a large lake in northern central Africa that provides fresh water to around… 8291/22 May/June 2019

Q17 · An extract report on the success of rewilding projects in the United Kingdom 8291/23 May/June 2019

Q18 · Lake Chad is a large lake in northern central Africa that provides fresh water to around… 8291/23 May/June 2019

Q19 · A diagram that represents the stages in a succession 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2019

Q20 · The relationship between average annual precipitation and temperature for some major… 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2019

Q21 · The Great Limpopo Trans-Frontier Park and Conservation Area, a joint project between… 8291/21 May/June 2020

Q22 · The area of susceptible drylands in each continent, and the main causes of soil… 8291/21 May/June 2020

Q23 · A suggested model for the establishment of marine conservation areas worldwide 8291/22 May/June 2020

Q24 · A suggested model for the establishment of marine conservation areas worldwide 8291/23 May/June 2020

Q25 · A model of a biosphere conservation area 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2020

Q26 · A series of maps showing the extent of the tropical rainforest in Borneo from 1950 to… 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2020

Q27 · A report about large-scale loss in flying insect numbers worldwide 8291/21 May/June 2021

Q28 · A diagram of a ‘green city’ 8291/21 May/June 2021

Question 29 8291/22 May/June 2021

Question 30 8291/23 May/June 2021

Q31 · Animal breeding programmes and release into National Parks is one method of wildlife… 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2021

Q32 · Information about ecotourism in Costa Rica 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2021

Q33 · Animal breeding programmes and release into National Parks is one method of wildlife… 8291/23 Oct/Nov 2021

Q34 · The mass of waste generated per person in seven countries in Europe in 2016 8291/21 May/June 2022

Q35 · Light pollution is caused by the use of artificial light 8291/21 May/June 2022

Q36 · A conservationist uses aerial photographs to estimate the population of a species of bird 8291/22 May/June 2022

Q37 · A conservationist uses aerial photographs to estimate the population of a species of bird 8291/23 May/June 2022

Q38 · A photograph of an area of densely forested land affected by human activity 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2022

Q39 · A photograph of Stockton mine, a large coal mine in New Zealand 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2022

Q40 · The photograph in Fig 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2022

Q41 · A photograph of an area of densely forested land affected by human activity 8291/23 Oct/Nov 2022

Q42 · A photograph of Stockton mine, a large coal mine in New Zealand 8291/23 Oct/Nov 2022

Q43 · Brazil’s Atlantic forest contains approximately 6000 plant species, 263 amphibian species… 8291/21 May/June 2023

Question 44 8291/22 May/June 2023

Question 45 8291/23 May/June 2023

Q46 · The European bee‑eater bird 8291/22 May/June 2024

Q47 · The European bee‑eater bird 8291/23 May/June 2024

Q48 · A vertical aquaculture farm 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2024

Q49 · Bats are flying nocturnal mammals 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2024

Q50 · Rhinoceros are at risk from climate change 8291/21 Oct/Nov 2025

Question 51 8291/22 Oct/Nov 2025

Q52 · Rhinoceros are at risk from climate change 8291/23 Oct/Nov 2025