Why was there rapid industrialisation after 1870? — Paper 2 — A Level History 9489 topical questions

Question 1

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the 1848 Public Health Act was introduced. [10] (b) ‘Agricultural changes c…

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2(a) Explain why the 1848 Public Health Act was introduced. 10 • The publication of ‘The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population Great Britain’ in 1842 by Edwin Chadwick was a great influence on the decision. This was because it advocated that spending on improved sanitation would improve health, thereby reducing the money being spent on the families of those who died from infectious diseases. Fewer people would be claiming poor relief, whose costs had risen greatly because of industrialisation and urbanisation, so saving money. • This prompted the founding of the Health of Towns Association in 1844, with branches in major industrial cities such as Edinburgh, Liverpool and Manchester. Public opinion was organised around the need for government action on sanitation. • There was a growing acceptance of the idea that government should play a more active role in public life, as seen in the Factory Acts of 1819 and 1833, along with the Mines Act of 1842. • The cholera outbreak of 1848, which led to over 50 000 deaths, was the final push which caused the government to act. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘Agricultural changes caused the Industrial Revolution.’ How valid is 20 this view? The following could be used to support the statement. It was the large increase in the food supply which produced increased agricultural profits, and these, in turn, could be invested in industry. This investment stimulated the banking system providing further means for industrial entrepreneurs to access funds. The need to transport this increased food supply led to developments in transport, such as roads and canals. The increase in the food supply meant an improvement in diet and this contributed to population growth. This, in turn, helped to create internal demand. The use of scientific methods of production in agriculture undoubtedly acted as an encouragement for entrepreneurs to apply such rationale to industry. The view, however, can be challenged. There are several factors which can be seen as bringing about the Industrial Revolution. The existence of large markets abroad provided not only access to raw materials but also the opportunity for profits, and these could be used for industrial investment. The political atmosphere in Britain was vital in causing the Industrial Revolution. Government support for laissez-faire capitalism and free trade created an environment conducive to industrial entrepreneurs. Mechanisation ensured an extensive increase in production, both agricultural and industrial. It led to a fall in prices and, thereby, created demand and markets. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 2

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why Progressive reforms were more successful at state than federal level. [10…

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5(a) Explain why Progressive reforms were more successful at state than 10 federal level. Although there were some federal successes of the Progressive era (i.e. the 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th amendments to the Constitution) it was often at state and local level where Progressive governors were able to use their power to introduce radical reforms which were often blocked by Congress. There are a number of examples which could be used to discuss why the success of Progressive ideas was greater at a state level: Wisconsin In his home state of Wisconsin Robert M La Follette developed the ideas of Progressivism. He believed that good government occurred when voters had control of institutions rather than special interest groups. This meant that he wanted ordinary people to have power rather than big businesses. He believed that specialists in fields such as law and economics should be involved in running the government. He also worked with the state university to establish a ‘laboratory of democracy’. In Wisconsin he supported direct primary elections which meant that voters had the right to choose their own candidates for office. After 1906 when La Follette became a Senator he tried to take these ideas with him to national politics, but he was not always successful. California Between 1910 and 1914, under Governor Hiram Johnson’s political leadership the California legislature expanded state government first by breaking the economic and political power of the Southern Pacific Railroad (SP). The reform legislature passed the Stetson-Eshelman Act, which increased the state Railroad Commission’s authority and power to fix passenger and freight rates; thus ending Southern Pacific Railroad’s (SP) crushing monopolistic practices. With the Public Utilities Act and the creation of the Public Utility Commission (PUC), the agency’s commissioners had the authority over the railroads as well as all public utilities. Johnson was also interested in education and called for teacher pensions, free textbooks for public school children, the creation of a comprehensive curriculum, and mandatory kindergartens Accept other valid responses. 5(b) To what extent were technological innovations the cause of rapid 20 industrialisation in the late nineteenth century? Candidates may discuss a number of technological inventions of the period e.g. electrical power, the internal combustion engine, the typewriter [1867], celluloid, an early form of plastic [1870] and the telephone [1876] – these ideas should be linked to how they encouraged industrialisation in a period which is often labelled as the ‘Second Industrial Revolution’. This may include discussion of new working practices, labour saving devices and increased consumer spending. However, other factors were also important. On the supply side, these included the availability of resources, especially financial. Capital came either from American banks or the City of London in sufficient quantities. Also relevant was the individualistic, entrepreneurial culture of the USA which ensured competition between the inventors of the new technologies, e.g. incandescent light bulbs and electricity supply. The US system of patents also encouraged innovation because, unusually, it granted patents to improvements to inventions as well as the initial invention. This encouraged many to adapt new products to gain patent rights. Finally, the high tariff walls of the era protected developing industries. On the demand side, the growing population of the USA provided a large mass market which was not available to America’s industrial competitors. from a series of factors, one of which was the new technologies of the time. Accept other valid responses.

Question 3

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why some of the lower classes resisted mechanisation. [10] (b) To what extent d…

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2(a) Explain why some of the lower classes resisted mechanisation. 10 • Increasing mechanisation meant that there was less need for skilled workers and this threatened their livelihoods. • Appeals for government aid and assistance were ignored. This led to desperate measures being taken, such as by the Luddites in the North of England. • Threshing machines threatened to take away one of the few opportunities for work on the land in the winter. This was a factor behind the Swing riots of 1830–1831 in the south and east of England. • Mechanisation meant the end of traditional working practices and so threatened the viability of many communities as people sought employment in the industrial towns and cities. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) To what extent did transport developments bring about 20 industrialisation? Arguments to support the significance of transport developments in bringing about industrialisation could take the following form. Canals made it possible to transport goods in bulk. Raw materials, such as cotton, could be moved inland from ports, whilst finished goods could be moved to the ports for export. This all acted as a spur to increased industrial production. For canals to be built, investment was needed (£1 million per annum in the 1790s) and this requirement led to the development of a sophisticated banking system and the growth of joint-stock banks. Without canals, it is unlikely that initial industrialisation would have happened. Railways and steam ships continued this stimulus to industrialisation with their voracious appetite for iron, steel, and coal, along with the need for investment. Whilst railways moved goods speedily in bulk within the country, steam ships did the same externally. The view can be challenged. Changes in agriculture led to increased production and created increased profits which were invested in industrial enterprises. The availability of food led to improved diets which helped bring about a growth in population. This, in turn, created a growing demand for goods which increased industrialisation and provided the labour force needed to maintain industrial output. Mechanisation not only increased production but led to price falls which acted as a further stimulus for increased demand and industrialisation. The support for laissez-faire capitalism by governments throughout this period meant the economic environment was very supportive of industrial entrepreneurs. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 4

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the Industrial Revolution had an impact on the lower classes. [10] (b) To w…

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2(a) Explain why the Industrial Revolution had an impact on the lower 10 classes. • The Industrial Revolution provided opportunities for regular employment, especially for unskilled labour. • The changes in transport caused by industrialisation meant that food supplies could be more easily transported, reducing the periodic fear of shortages greatly. • Due to increased mechanisation, skilled workers often found their livelihoods undermined. • The slowly developing, but limited, oversight of industrial working conditions by the government meant that these conditions remained unhealthy and dangerous throughout this period. • Industrialisation created a new, large industrial labour force and this, in turn, produced a growing politicisation (e.g., Chartism). • Housing and health – overcrowding led to disease and high mortality rates including epidemics of typhoid and cholera. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) To what extent did the growth of international markets contribute to 20 industrialisation in Britain? Britain’s overseas colonies provided both opportunities for extensive trade in raw materials produced in the colonies and a market for British manufactured goods. The profits made stimulated further demand and allowed for more investment in industrial enterprises. The domestic market was not big enough to generate the wealth that large-scale industrialisation needed. This overseas investment helped create a sophisticated banking and capital raising system which provided the funds that industrial entrepreneurs needed to develop their business. In 1833, when Britain abolished slavery, the compensation paid to slave owners is approximately equivalent to £16 billion in present-day money, and approximately half is believed to have remained in Britain. This undoubtedly boosted railway development (estimated to cost £40 000 per mile laid), resulting in increased investment in the iron, steel, and coal industries. Sir John Gladstone, the father of future Prime Minister William Gladstone, was compensated for his slaves with the equivalent of £83 million in today’s money and became a large investor in the developing railways. The view can be challenged. The Agricultural Revolution provided the food needed by industry to feed the workforce. This resulted in dietary improvements, which aided in population growth. Internal demand grew in response to the rapid growth of the population. The British government’s support for free trade and laissez-faire capitalism created an environment that promoted entrepreneurship. Transport developments, such as railways (by 1850, over 6000 miles of track had been laid), aided industrialisation by allowing bulk transportation of raw materials and manufactured goods. The extensive increase in production required mechanisation and technological development. This increase resulted in rapid price drops and the creation of larger markets, resulting in rapid industrialisation. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 5

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why railways increased industrialisation. [10] (b) How far was the political sy…

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2(a) Explain why the railways increased industrialisation. 10 • Railways were vital for the speedy delivery, in bulk, of raw materials and finished products. This allowed demand to be met, reduced prices and created further demand. • Railways created the need for investment which stimulated the banking system. By 1850, 37% of total railway investment came from joint-stock banks. The increasingly sophisticated banking system offered opportunities for industry to access funds for investment in further mechanisation and technological change. • Employment was created by the railways, not just in their building but in their functioning (staff to run the trains and stations alongside workers in the workshops servicing the engines), creating further internal demand. • Food could be transported quickly to urban areas, allowing the population to continue to grow and stimulate demand for goods. The railways’ need for coal, steel and iron further stimulated these industries and led to technological innovation and organisational growth. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) How far was the political system changed by the Industrial Revolution 20 in the period 1800‒50? Arguments to show change could be as follows. The size and wealth of the middle classes increased due to the employment opportunities created by the Industrial Revolution (e.g. managers/ lawyers/bankers/ engineers/ factory owners). This led to a growing political influence, as seen, for example, in the 1832 Representation of the People Act. It increased the total male electorate by about 50% and 43 new boroughs, mostly northern industrial and commercial towns gained representation in Parliament. The 1835 Municipal Corporations Act effectively passed control of the industrial towns and cities to the middle classes. The Tory Party, the seeming bastion of the landed interest, was twice led by Sir Robert Peel (1834–1835 and 1841–1846) the son of a Lancashire textile manufacturer. The free trade debates from the late 1830s could be argued to show that Britain’s economic policies now would be determined by the concerns of industry and commerce and not those of the land. The generally appalling working and living conditions created as a result of the Industrial Revolution led to a growing politicisation (e.g. Chartism) of the lower classes who saw political representation as the means to improve these conditions. There was some acknowledgement that government did have a role in the oversight of living and working conditions, for example the Factory Acts, 1819 and 1833 and the Public Health Act, 1848. However, it could be argued there was no change. The aristocracy adapted to the Industrial Revolution by embracing it (the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal and the Duke of Hamilton’s coalfields), thereby maintaining their political status. There is an argument that the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) was not necessarily an example of the triumph of the middle classes but rather a move by Peel to preserve the aristocracy by abandoning these laws and thereby undermining calls for more radical political change if they had remained. The emphasis on property rights in the 1832 Reform Act tied the middle classes to the existing order, maintaining the status quo. Five out of six working men were still not enfranchised. Whilst Chartism made demands for political change none were enacted and after 1848 it ceased to be a national movement. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 6

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why the growth of railroads was important to the economy in the late nineteen…

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5(a) Explain why the growth of railroads was important to the economy in 10 the late nineteenth century. Between the 1860s and 1890, five transcontinental railroads were built: two across the North – the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern – two in the South – Santa Fé and the Southern Pacific – and one in the centre/north – the Central Pacific/Union Pacific. This last railroad was the first to be completed, in 1869, and is the best known. Travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific thereafter took 8–10 days. They were significant to the USA because of: • Economic benefits, both direct and indirect. The direct benefits included increased demand for iron and steel. The indirect benefits included the creation of a genuinely national market. • Demand for labour, usually immigrant. People were needed both to build and staff the railroads and to farm the land which railroad companies had been given. Special immigrant trains were provided. North Dakota’s capital was renamed Bismarck. • Demand for investment funds in advance of any income from the railroads – and that was often never great – stimulated the US financial sector. • Encouraged urbanisation and growth of factory based industries. • Helped development of export markets. Accept other valid responses. 5(b) To what extent was social improvement the aim of the Progressive 20 Movement in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? Possible discussion points around social improvement: • Prohibition (18th Amendment) was the only Progressive era amendment to have a social/moral goal but it was part of a wider focus by Progressives on social improvement. Temperance had held a close association with Progressives for some years. • Governors such as Hiram Johnson in California were particularly interested in education and called for teacher pensions, free textbooks for public school children, the creation of a comprehensive curriculum, and mandatory kindergartens. • Focus on compulsory education - Enrolment for children (age 5 to 19) in school rose from 50.5 percent to 59.2 between 1900 and 1909. Enrolment in public secondary school went from 519 000 to 841 000. Possible discussion points around other aims of the Progressive movement: • Political reforms occurred mainly at state level, which meant not all states were included: initiatives and referendums and recall elections. • The constitutional reforms were four amendments, 16 to 19, passed in the space of just seven years: federal income tax – direct elections of the US Senate – prohibition of the sale of alcohol – votes for women. • Most reforms aimed to democratise the US system of government. A federal income tax also had a populist dimension in that it would enable the reduction of tariffs, which were a tax on ordinary people. Accept other valid responses.

Question 7

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the agricultural revolution was a cause of the Industrial Revolution. [10] …

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2(a) Explain why the agricultural revolution was a cause of the Industrial 10 Revolution. • The move from subsistence to production for profit provided the food needed to feed a large industrial workforce. • It led to an improved diet and, in turn, a rise in population, which increased internal demand for goods produced by industry. • The agricultural revolution produced large profits, which were often invested in industry, thereby stimulating industrial development. • The success of mechanisation and the application of scientific methods in agriculture provided a template for industrial entrepreneurs. • Increased agricultural production caused transport changes (roads/canals) and this helped industrial needs. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) To what extent did industrialisation benefit the lower classes? 20 Note: details of any changes after 1850 are not relevant to this question – the syllabus specification is 1750–1850. Arguments to show that industrialisation was a major benefit to the lower classes could take the following form. Industrialisation provided regular employment, especially for the majority unskilled workers amongst the lower classes. Because of the transportation developments that accompanied industrialisation, food was more readily available as it could be transported easily to urban centres. This effectively ended the fear of periodic food shortage which had, hitherto, been the norm. Some historians argue the lower classes’ standard of living rose during this period due to an increase in real wages. The gradual government enactments of legislation regulating working conditions did begin to provide some protection to workers in the lower classes. However, the argument for benefit can be challenged. Due to industrialisation, home industries such as weaving and spinning declined in rural areas and caused suffering and poverty for the lower classes. Thus, there was a decline in the standard of living. Several historians argue that significant improvements in the standard of living only came in the latter-half of the nineteenth century. Members of the lower classes migrated to the new urban areas, products of industrialisation, in search of employment, shattering the social cohesion of rural towns and villages. In times of low demand, workers could be laid off with no support. The living conditions in these areas were generally appalling, with poorly built and over-crowded houses with limited sanitation. Government legislation was tentative in this period, with real improvements taking place in the latter decades of the nineteenth century. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 8

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why Progressives wanted to limit the power of party machines. [10] (b) To wha…

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5(a) Explain why Progressives wanted to limit the power of party machines. 10 • Party bosses were unpopular with progressive reformers because they abused both the electoral process and the conduct of city government, primarily for their self-interest. • The Progressives aim to limit the power of the party machines was political, financial and moral. • The Progressives believed that the best way to tackle social and political problems facing the country was to accept the need for change and embrace the best advice from non-partisan experts. Party machines were based around cronyism which went against this view. • For some Progressives, the problems facing the major US cities (corruption/poor housing/disease) were so entrenched that they advocated that democracy would have to give way to expertise if the ills they diagnosed were ever to be cured. Therefore, any democratic mandate that party machines may have was not sufficient for Progressives. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) To what extent was the growth of the railroads the reason for the rapid 20 industrialisation of the late nineteenth century? Possible discussion points on the impact of the railroads: • In 1870, there were 50 000 miles of track; by 1890, there were 163 000 miles. From the opening of the first transcontinental line in 1869, links between east and west coasts became much faster. • Economists, such as W W Rostow, argued that this growth was the major cause of wider economic growth which ensured the existence of a proper national market, reduced transport costs and widened markets for a wide range of goods, stimulated growth of the iron, steel and coal industries; its need for capital helped develop the capital market which benefited other industries. • Other historians challenged this view. They argued that the railroads played a limited part in the growth of iron and steel industries and thus that their development was less significant for longer-term economic growth. Other possible discussion points on rapid industrialisation: • Candidates may discuss several technological inventions of the period, for example, electrical power, the internal combustion engine, the typewriter [1867], celluloid, an early form of plastic [1870] and the telephone [1876]. These ideas should be linked to how they encouraged industrialisation in a period which is often labelled as the ‘Second Industrial Revolution’. • Also relevant was the individualistic, entrepreneurial culture of the USA which ensured competition between the inventors of the new technologies, for example, incandescent light bulbs and electricity supply. The US system of patents also encouraged innovation because, unusually, it granted patents to improvements to inventions as well as the initial invention. This encouraged many to adapt new products to gain patent rights. • Tariffs and the politics of an increasingly global trade network may also be discussed. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 9

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why canals were important to the development of the Industrial Revolution. [10]…

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2(a) Explain why canals were important to the development of the Industrial 10 Revolution. • Canals were the first step towards an effective means of transporting goods produced in bulk by factories. This led to the development of many canals in the industrial areas of the north-west, north-east and midlands, the powerhouses of the Industrial Revolution. • This created links between more distant places and so brought about internal demand. They could be linked to seaports which greatly aided the export of finished goods and the import of raw materials, further stimulating factory production. • Building canals created employment which meant that wages could be spent on factory goods. The need for investment to build canals helped to stimulate the banking system, and this allowed additional sources of finance to be opened to industrial entrepreneurs for mechanisation and technological innovation. • Through the transportation of coal in bulk the canals helped to satisfy the energy needs of factories. • Coal, the driving force of the Industrial Revolution, was inextricably linked to the development of canals. More than half of the Navigation Acts between 1758 and 1802 were set up by canal companies for concerns whose main aim was the transport of coal. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) After 1800, how far did governments use repression to respond to the 20 demands for change caused by industrialisation? Arguments to support the view that repression was the main method used by governments could take the following form. Governments were fearful, generally, that demands for change were the prelude to disorder and so needed a firm hand. The onset of the French Revolution (1789) and war with France (1793‒1802 and 1803–15) raised real fear that Britain would face revolution, and calls for change, political or economic were met with repression. The Combination Acts (1799) made strike action illegal and punishable by imprisonment. Parliament made ‘machine breaking’, as carried out by the Luddites, a capital crime with the Frame Breaking Act of 1812. A number of Luddites were either executed or transported. Unions were seen as a threat. The transportation of the Tolpuddle Martyrs (1834) to Australia was to discourage workers from joining trade unions. Repression was not just legal in form. A meeting at St. Peter’s Field in Manchester in 1819 calling for reform was broken up with a cavalry charge, killing eleven. Whilst the war with Napoleon’s France was ended the accompanying economic downturn and social distress raised even more fear of revolutionary activity. Troops were deployed to deal with Chartist agitation. However, other methods were employed. The Combination Acts were repealed in 1824 and a new Act was passed in 1825. A shift in thinking occurred that trade unions could not be ignored, to do so might create more radical responses. When Chartist violence occurred in Newport (1839) the leaders were sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered but this was commuted to transportation. The government realising such a barbaric punishment would only cause further antagonism, which might not be contained. Governments were more willing to concede to demands for reform from the middle classes than the lower classes because in so doing the existing order was preserved. This can be seen in the 1832 Reform Act which did grant more middle-class parliamentary representation, but through its emphasis on property rights detached the middle classes from the lower classes. The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) can be seen, also, in this light. By repealing the laws it ended potentially more radical demand for change and so preserved the status of the aristocracy. Demands for change sometimes were acceded to by government because there was a growing acceptance that in the circumstances created by industrialisation government should take a more active role (e.g., Public Health Act 1848. Five Factory Acts were passed between 1819 and 1950) Accept any other valid responses.

Question 10

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why there was a rise in organised farming groups in the late nineteenth centu…

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5(a) Explain why there was a rise in organised farming groups in the late 10 nineteenth century. The main farming associations of the time were the Granger Movement in the early 1870s, the Greenback Movement a few years later and the Populist movement of the 1890s. The centre of these movements was the Mid-west. These associations were formed to represent farmers’ concerns over a range of issues. • Volatile prices were a serious problem: the prices of farm produce could vary greatly from year to year meaning that farmers had to borrow to buy materials and equipment before receiving income from sales. • Thus, they were opposed to the power of commercial banks and of railroad companies, which farmers believed overcharged. Therefore, they aimed to regulate the railroads – with some success. • The deflationary policy associated with the withdrawal of the US paper currency, the greenback dollar, and the refusal to expand silver-based money, i.e. bimetallism also caused problems. • There were also social reasons for the popularity of these groups as the meetings and organisations meant that the isolation which characterised the life of many farmers was ameliorated. Accept other valid responses. 5(b) ‘Wilson did more to achieve Progressive aims than other Progressive 20 presidents.’ How far do you agree with this view? Discussion of Wilson’s achievements in Progressive policies: • Wilson’s ‘New Freedom’ initiative of 1912 was directed against ‘the Triple Wall of Privilege’: tariffs, which protected big business; banks, which harmed small businesses; trusts, which were anti-competitive and anti- consumer. • Thus, in 1913, Wilson manipulated public opinion to make Congress pass the Underwood-Simmons bill, which cut tariffs to levels not seen since the 1850s, he introduced the Federal Reserve banking system and the Federal Trade Commission, and he supported the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914. • Wilson even continued Teddy Roosevelt’s conservation policies, establishing more national parks. In his second term he also supported votes for women, another Progressive cause. • There may be some discussion over whether Wilson was actually a Progressive – Wilson’s progressive domestic policy of his first term is often overlooked in favour of the more dramatic foreign policy of his second term. The war caused some of his policies to become less progressive, for example the Espionage and Sedition Act of 1917. He did nothing for racial minorities and was actually a supporter of the KKK. Progressive policies of other Presidents: • Teddy Roosevelt: The Square Deal consisted of conservation, control of corporations and consumer protection. Among many other reforms, he established five national parks, set up the Department of Commerce and Labour, introduced ‘trust-busting’ policies and persuaded Congress to pass the Pure Food and Drugs Act. He aimed to reduce the power of sectional interests, whether business, labour or party political. • William Taft: Taft filed twice the number of antitrust suits as Roosevelt, and the Supreme Court upheld the breakup of Standard Oil under the Sherman Antitrust Act (1911) during his administration. Through the Mann‐Elkins Act (1910), the authority of the ICC was again expanded to cover regulation of telephone, telegraph, and cable companies. Taft actively supported both the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments (which provided for the federal income tax and direct election of senators, respectively) and established new agencies, such as the Bureau of Mines, which set standards of mine safety, and the Federal Children's Bureau. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 11

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why the railroad network grew quickly in the late nineteenth century. [10] (b…

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5(a) Explain why the railroad network grew quickly in the late nineteenth 10 century. Indicative content In 1865 there were 35 000 miles of track, by 1890 166 000 miles, nearly a fivefold increase. The reasons for this rapid growth include: • The growth of private investment, by investors rich and poor, especially via joint-stock companies. Business tycoons such as Cornelius Vanderbilt played a major role in the expansion – he laid out the entire network of railroads in New York after shifting his attention from his maritime business to railroads. • There were also public subsidies, mainly in terms of land grants: some 130m acres by 1870. Four out of five transcontinental railroads were built with the assistance of the federal government. • Expanding markets in a continental economy created a need to move goods, especially foodstuffs, as quickly as possible. In 1872 Aaron Montgomery Ward started the first mail order catalogue business which used railroads to transport goods all across the country. Most expansion was in the Midwest and the northeast. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) ‘Women’s suffrage was the most important achievement of the 20 Progressive Movement.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Possible discussion of female emancipation: The passing of the 19th amendment which gave women the right to vote was clearly a success for the suffrage campaign which had been active since 1848. The fact that women had the right to vote by 1920 was a major success and not necessarily one that could have been predicted even earlier in the decade when Wilson was reluctant to take on the cause nationally. Candidates might discuss how much of a success it really was in terms of changing the lives of women in a social and economic sense. Other areas of discussion for success/limitations of the Progressive movement: • During the Progressive Era there were three other amendments to the Constitution which arguably were significant achievements for the Progressive agenda. The 16th amendment authorised direct income tax and was the first amendment in more than forty years. It was a victory for those progressives who spent years trying to break up monopolies and corruption in business across the United States. The 17th amendment established direct elections to the Senate which underlined Progressive commitment to direct democracy. The 18th was arguably the most significant as it imposed prohibition on the country. This was the result of a long fight for temperance that many progressives had been involved in. • Candidates may also discuss the successes for Progressive ideas that were seen in states such as Wisconsin and California under Progressive governors. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 12

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why there was rapid urbanisation in the period 1750–1850. [10] (b) ‘The availab…

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2(a) Explain why there was rapid urbanisation in the period 1750–1850. 10 Indicative content  There was mass migration from rural to urban areas. In 1760, some 16% lived in urban areas, but by 1840 it was 54%, and continued to rise.  Factories, mines, and railways needed workers to sustain production.  Developments in agriculture meant that it was possible to sustain large urban populations.  Changes in transport (roads/canals/railways) meant that such foodstuffs could be transported in bulk, and so affordable, to these growing urban centres.  The development of international trade and markets stimulated the growth of ports, providing employment and attracting people to move to these growing centres. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘The availability of energy sources was the most important reason 20 Britain experienced an Industrial Revolution.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Areas in Britain such as the North and the North Midlands possessed plentiful fast-flowing streams which provided the initial motive power for mills and factories. Britain possessed, also, an additional source of energy supply in the form of coal. There were rich coal seams in South Wales, the East Midlands, South Yorkshire, the North-East and Central Scotland. The relatively small size of Britain meant that the energy source would not have to travel great distances to where it was needed, thereby limiting costs and acting as an encouragement to industrialise. However, there were other factors which can be used to question the primacy of energy sources in causing Britain to experience the Industrial Revolution. Britain’s possession of numerous navigable rivers aided the movement of bulky goods. This meant production could grow, an aspect further helped by the fact access to the sea, vital for the development of foreign trade, was easy for most parts of the country. In addition, Britain’s Royal Navy ensured that international trade was safeguarded and allowed for the, almost, continuous export of manufactured goods. The damp climate in the North-West of England was conducive to the processing of raw cotton. Agricultural developments (it has been estimated agriculture in 1800 was 40–50 per cent more productive than 100 years earlier) helped to create not only a rise in population, and, thereby, demand for finished goods, but also, ensured that industrial enterprises would be able to have a labour force sustained by a plentiful supply of food. Government adopted a laissez-faire approach regarding business and industry. This encouraged enterprise and allowed innovation to develop unhindered. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 13

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why temperance was a popular idea amongst Progressives. [10] (b) ‘New technol…

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5(a) Explain why temperance was a popular idea amongst Progressives. 10 Indicative content  Various groups campaigned for temperance (and sometimes also prohibition) in this period. Groups such as the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League may be discussed by candidates.  Temperance groups were particularly strong in Southern states and rural areas in the North but by the end of the century the campaign was a national one.  Temperance became linked with the Progressive movement because it was linked with many of the concerns of Progressive campaigners. It was concerned with the moral fabric of society and the impact that alcohol had on families and vulnerable members of society. It was supported primarily by the middle classes and imposed on working class members of the community – particularly Irish and German immigrants in many towns and cities. It was also aimed at controlling powerful business interests (liquor distillers) and their connections with venal and corrupt politicians in city, state, and national governments. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) ‘New technology was the main cause of industrial growth in the late 20 nineteenth century.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Possible discussions around new technology: Electrical power, the internal combustion engine, the typewriter [1867], celluloid, an early form of plastic [1870] and the telephone [1876] are all technological innovations relevant to this period. Collectively they give rise to the period being described by some as ‘the second industrial revolution’. While many inventions were labour-saving devices, causing unemployment, others resulted in new products and services which were bought by the ‘early adopters’ of the time, thus creating new employment opportunities. Though the balance between the two is hard to assess, labour-saving innovations were often needed to overcome problems caused by labour shortages, especially in the northeast. Thus, overall, innovative technologies did help the continued growth of the industrial sector. Other possible areas of discussion: Availability of resources, especially financial – Capital came either from American banks or the City of London in sufficient quantities. Also relevant was the individualistic, entrepreneurial culture of the USA which ensured competition between the inventors of the new technologies, e.g., incandescent light bulbs and electricity supply. 5(b) The US system of patents also encouraged innovation because, unusually, it granted patents to improvements to inventions as well as the initial invention. This encouraged many to adapt new products to gain patent rights. High tariff walls of the era protected developing industries On the demand side, the growing population of the USA provided a large mass market which was not available to America’s industrial competitors. Thus, rapid industrialisation resulted from a series of factors, one of which was the new technologies of the time. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 14

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the Swing riots happened. [10] (b) ‘The factory system was the main reason …

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2(a) Explain why the Swing riots happened. 10 Indicative content  It was a protest against agricultural mechanisation, such as threshing machines, which threatened the livelihood of agricultural workers. One machine could do the work of several unskilled men.  There was a long period of economic depression in the south and east of England following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. This led landowners and tenants to cut costs (i.e. wages). The continued rise in population outstripped that of available job opportunities. Therefore, what jobs existed in these areas had to be protected.  The harvests of 1828 and 1829 were particularly poor, causing food prices to rise. The desire to attain a minimum living wage was a further spur to the agricultural workers’ actions.  Growing mechanisation had led to a change in the status of agricultural workers. Instead of, as in the 1780s, receiving wages in a salary for the year, it became a monthly payment and then the contracts became weekly. Thus, the working lives of the agricultural workers became precarious.  Effect of the Corn Laws – kept the price of grain artificially high and added to issue of price of basic foods adding to general hunger an discontent. Note: generic comments about opposition to machines and low wages, should not reach L3 unless specifically focused on agriculture. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘The factory system was the main reason for the rapid development of 20 industry after 1780.’ To what extent do you agree? Indicative content Decennial: Lasting for, or relating to, a period of ten years. Factories facilitated economies of scale in mass-produced goods and introduced new technology for accelerating production. After 1780, the growth rate of industrial production was three to four per cent per annum. Factories required a labour force to work in them which encouraged migration and led to urbanisation. This increasing concentration of population led to a growth in the demand for goods. This stimulated an increase in manufacturing output. Factories need to receive increasing amounts of raw materials, creating a growth in international trade. The decennial average for cotton was 15.9m lbs in the 1780s and was 927.8m lbs in the 1850s. Once produced the goods needed to be transported, leading to developments in transport (roads/canals/railways/steamships). There was an increase in the demand for coal to be supplied, which was further stimulated using steam-powered machinery in the factories. Other industries such as iron and steel developed, as they provided the materials for the factory machinery, railway locomotion and steam engines for ships. The growth of international trade created a growth in ports, such as Liverpool, as imports of raw materials to and exports of manufactured goods from factories flowed through their docks. The primacy of factories can be questioned. The governmental approach of ‘laissez-faire’ meant that inventions and innovation were encouraged. Governments were lax in upholding various statutes restricting trade, such as apprenticeships. Therefore, places such as Birmingham and Sheffield operated in almost conditions of free labour, as weak enforcement of labour laws ensured easier recruitment of a mass-workforce. The lack of internal tolls and tariffs made Britain, at the time, the largest integrated market in Europe. Agricultural developments meant the labour force could be supplied with sufficient food to sustain the population in these growing urban centres. The need to move these foodstuffs in bulk acted as a stimulant to developments in transport. Access to banking and capital raising facilities enabled industry to develop. The Royal Navy ensured that Britain could import and export goods to sustain industrial development. Candidates may also develop the idea of other factors being equally or more, important like improvements in transport or development of the steam engine or the creation of a raft of new inventions. The best responses might recognise that all factors were mutually supportive. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 15

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why new inventions were important to the rapid industrialisation of the late …

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5(a) Explain why new inventions were important to the rapid 10 industrialisation of the late nineteenth century. Indicative content  Electrical power, the internal combustion engine, the typewriter [1867], celluloid, an early form of plastic [1870] and the telephone [1876] are all technological innovations relevant to this period. Collectively they give rise to the period being described by some as ‘the second industrial revolution’.  While many inventions were labour-saving devices, causing unemployment, others resulted in new products and services which were bought by the ‘early adopters’ of the time, thus creating new employment opportunities.  There were also developments such as the Bessemer process which transformed the steel industry and led to much more efficient production.  Many new inventions in the period helped reduce the cost of production which enabled mass production methods that would supercharge the economy.  The thirst to find new inventions and processes often required capital investment which encouraged the development of the banking system. Note: any mention of production line techniques are not valid as Ford only invented it in 1913. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) ‘The impact of the Progressive Movement was significant.’ How far do 20 you agree with this view? Indicative content Possible discussion of achievements of Progressivism: Progressive politicians achieved the passage of political reforms, e.g. the amendments which allowed for the direct elections of US Senators; party primaries; referenda and initiatives; votes for women. They improved regulation of business, especially big business via trust- busting laws and policies, food and drugs laws, railroad fares. Government financial policies via the Federal Reserve Board, federal income tax. Increased investment in conservation with the growth of national parks, especially under Theodore Roosevelt. 5(b) Possible discussion of limits of Progressivism: In arguing that the Progressive Movement was less successful, there was limited impact of many reforms, especially political and regulatory. While Prohibition was passed in 1919, its implementation caused more problems such as crime. It has also been argued that there was neglect of the African American society, especially during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, who was a Southern Democrat. Candidates might also point to the limited impact on workers’ rights and organised labour before 1920 as well unsuccessful attempts to improve living conditions in cities. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 16

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why access to international markets helped to increase the development of indus…

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2(a) Explain why access to international markets helped to increase the 10 development of industry after 1780. Indicative content  It provided access to important raw materials, such as cotton, which drove the development of the cotton textile industry.  Access to large overseas markets was available. By 1801 exports were about 16% of national income.  As most of these exports were manufactured goods this meant that such exports were a much higher portion of manufacturing output. It has been calculated that net exports were about 45% of manufacturing, mining, and building.  The slave trade provided large amounts of investment capital for industrialisation – rail and steel industries.  The profits gained by industries through access to international markets allowed them to invest in their own and other industries. This led to expansion and continued industrial growth. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) To what extent did working conditions improve for the lower classes 20 after 1800? Indicative content A series of acts relating to the regulation of industry were passed by governments in 1819, 1833, 1842 and 1844. Thus, in the 1819 Act, children under-nine were not to be employed and the age group 9-16 was to work no more than 12 hours. The 1833 Act sought to improve on this when it stated that 9 to12-year-old should work no more than 48 hours per week, and 9 to13-year-old could only work if they had two hours of education per day. A Factory Inspectorate was to be established to carry out inspections, with the right to demand entry and to act as a magistrate. The 1844 Act forbade women and children from cleaning moving machinery in an attempt to improve factory safety. The 1842 Mines Act forbade women and girls of any 2(b) age from working underground and established the minimum age for boys underground as 10. However, the extent of improvement can be questioned. The reforms were limited. The 1819 Act was concerned with textile mills and factories not with industry as a whole. The Act of 1833 did not provide for a ‘ten-hour day’, which was what most factory reformers wanted. In addition, the focus was on women and children. Thus, 9 to 13-year-olds could not work for more than eight hours without a lunch break. This resulted in the use of two shifts of children, causing adults to have to work a 15-hour day. Whilst education was to be provided it was paid through a deduction of a penny-in-the-shilling from children’s wages. This, along with the reduction in hours, resulted, often, in a worsening of conditions for the lower-classes, and put more pressure on adult workers. Although there was some improvement in working conditions after 1800, it was limited and not without negative consequences for the lower classes. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 17

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why developments in textile machinery increased industrialisation after 1780. […

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2(a) Explain why developments in textile machinery increased 10 industrialisation after 1780. Indicative content • By the mid-1780s steam engines began to be applied to the spinning factories in Lancashire. By the early nineteenth century a Crompton’s ‘Mule’ had been developed made of metal and by 1825 Richard Roberts’ ‘self-acting mule’ (automatic) was operating. The de- centralised cottage industries were replaced by centralised factory jobs, driving production and urbanisation. • There was a growing demand for coal, leading to increased coal production. • The need to receive raw materials in bulk (18m lbs of cotton in 1786) in order to produce manufactured goods in bulk led to changes in transportation – canals/railways. • In 1784-86, 43% of all textiles manufactured were exported, rising in 1844-46 to 66%. This stimulated the growth of ports and international trade. • Profits produced in the industry were not just re-invested, stimulating continued development, but invested in other industrial areas (iron/steel) further encouraging industrialisation. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) How far was Chartism’s failure caused by opposition from 20 government? Indicative content Both main political parties were opposed to further political reform. In 1839, the House of Commons rejected a National Petition, 235 votes to 46, a second petition, in 1842, 287 votes 40 and in 1848, refused the presentation of a third petition. The government had powerful weapons at its disposal which thwarted Chartism’s aims. The railways were used to transport troops speedily to anywhere there were disturbances (e.g. Newport). Almost all local magistrates supported the government’s opposition, and in 1839 534 Chartists were sent to prison. After 1839 the newly emerging urban police forces were a further weapon to be used against the Chartists. The government employed less confrontational tactics, nonetheless still effective, to deprive Chartism of mass support. New factory reforms were enacted, trade revived and a factor behind the repeal of the Corn Laws was Peel’s belief it would give working people cheaper bread, removing a major source of resentment informing Chartism. The view can be challenged. The Chartists made significant mistakes. For example, a petition with six points did not leave much room for compromise if it was rejected. There was division, also, amongst the leadership over how best to proceed to achieve political change to better the living and working conditions of working people. Some favoured ‘moral force’ – the power of argument and persuasion – others believed in ‘physical force’ – reason had failed, so violence was needed to bring about change. The 1832 Reform Act had reduced the likelihood of an alliance between the middle and lower classes. In 1848 when a Chartist convention was held in London the middle- classes rallied in great numbers to the call to defend the capital. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 18

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why the US economy experienced periods of economic recession in the late nine…

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5(a) Explain why the US economy experienced periods of economic 10 recession in the late nineteenth century. Indicative content • Cyclical financial panics occurred in the last third of the nineteenth century as a result of railroad speculation, fluctuating food prices and an unbalanced credit heavy economy. There are two main examples in this period which candidates may discuss the causes of: • The Panic of 1873. The investment firm of Jay Cooke and Company went bankrupt in September 1873 as a result of rampant speculation in railroads. The stock market dropped sharply and caused numerous businesses to fail. The depression that followed caused approximately 3 million Americans to lose their jobs. The collapse in food prices impacted America's farm economy, causing great poverty in rural America. The depression lasted for five years, until 1878. • The Panic of 1893. The depression set off by the Panic of 1893 was the greatest depression America had known and was only surpassed by the Great Depression of the 1930s. In early May 1893, the New York stock market dropped sharply, and in late June panic selling caused the stock market to crash. A severe credit crisis resulted, and more than 16 000 businesses had failed by the end of 1893. Included in the failed businesses were 156 railroads and nearly 500 banks. Unemployment spread until one in six American men lost their jobs. The depression inspired ‘Coxey's Army’, a march on Washington of unemployed men. The protesters demanded that the government provide public works jobs. Their leader, Jacob Coxey, was imprisoned for 20 days. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) To what extent did presidents in the early twentieth century 20 successfully enact Progressive policies? Indicative content Candidates will discuss the ideas and actions of Theodore Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson. The discussion can take place in relation to ideas of Progressivism as set up by the candidate and also in comparison to each other. Discussion of Theodore Roosevelt as a Progressive President: Presidency, from 1901 to 1909. His legislative achievements have been described as ‘modest but historic’. They include railroad regulation, meat inspections and the Pure Food and Drug Act although an uncooperative Congress meant little radical legislation could be passed. More significant was TR’s use of the Presidency to act progressively. He ordered the prosecution of the Northern Securities Company, a railroad trust. The Supreme Court ordered the trust to be dissolved. TR became known as the ‘trust buster’. He intervened in the anthracite coal miners’ strike of 1902 not by sending in troops to break the strike, as had been the norm before, but to urge the two sides to talk to each other. Theodore Roosevelt certainly called himself a Progressive, especially in the 1912 presidential election. His conservation initiatives, setting up national parks for the benefit of all, can also be seen as Progressive. The main limitation of TR’s Progressivism concerns civil rights, especially of Blacks facing Jim Crow laws in the South, but there the Democratic Party was too strong. Discussion of Taft as a Progressive President: Taft filed twice the number of antitrust suits as Roosevelt, and the Supreme Court upheld the breakup of Standard Oil under the Sherman Antitrust Act (1911) during his administration. Through the Mann‐Elkins Act (1910), the authority of the ICC was again expanded to cover regulation of telephone, telegraph, and cable companies. Taft actively supported both the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments (which provided for the federal income tax and direct election of senators, respectively) and established new agencies, such as the Bureau of Mines, which set standards of mine safety, and the Federal Children's Bureau. Discussion of Wilson as a Progressive President: Woodrow Wilson’s ‘New Freedom’ initiative of 1912 was directed against ‘the Triple Wall of Privilege’: tariffs, which protected big business; banks, which harmed small businesses; trusts, which were anti-competitive and anti-consumer. Thus, in 1913, Wilson manipulated public opinion to make Congress pass the Underwood-Simmons bill, which cut tariffs to levels not seen since the 1850s, he introduced the Federal Reserve banking system and the Federal Trade Commission and he supported the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914. Wilson even continued Teddy Roosevelt’s conservation policies, establishing more national parks. In his second term he also supported votes for women, another Progressive cause. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 19

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why governments started to regulate working conditions. [10] (b) How far did me…

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2(a) Explain why governments started to regulate working conditions. 10 Indicative content • Humanitarianism – inspired by Christian beliefs many MPs (Whig/Tory/Radical) saw it as their Christian duty to aid the weaker members of society. For example, the Cotton Mills and Factories Act (1819) sought to regulate the hours and conditions of work of children in the cotton industry. • Utilitarianism – based on the ideas of Jeremy Bentham, who believed it was the government’s role to promote ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’. To do this it had to protect the weak, the vulnerable and the poor. Stress was placed on the thorough investigation of an issue, precise laws, and their effective enforcement. Hence the Factory Acts of 1833 and 1844. • Moral zeal – members serving on the commissions investigating coalmines were shocked to find that women worked underground, stripped to the waist, alongside men. The 1842 Mines Act was as much about maintaining ‘moral standards’ as improving working conditions. • Gradual acceptance – the changes wrought by industrialisation needed government to adopt a more interventionist role and legislating on working conditions was one such area the government had to act upon, as well as regulating key industries such as railways and banks (Railway Regulation Act, 1840 and 1844 and Bank Charter Act 1844). Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) How far did mechanisation lead to the Industrial Revolution? 20 Indicative content The extensive increase in production, a ‘revolution’, would, probably, not have taken place without its use. Therefore, there is a case to be made for its central role in the Industrial Revolution. For example, seed drills, flying shuttles and steam engines were all vital for the growth in production. The use of mechanisation led, also, to a significant drop in the price of goods. This then helped in the creation of a mass market. Mechanisation’s use led to the need for a large labour force which, in turn, stimulated the development of urbanisation. The need to supply raw materials in bulk to feed this increased mechanised production and then move the goods produced by the machines, led to developments in transport, such as canals and railways. The increasing import and export of goods produced a growth in ports and international trade. The primary role, however, of mechanisation can be questioned. The changes in agriculture meant that there was a plentiful supply of food to feed the growing population. This ensured that labour force was available, and its existence, and continued growth, maintained and increased the demand for manufactured goods. The development of international markets meant that demand would not be limited to the domestic market. The availability of energy sources, initially water and then coal, meant that there was the power required to drive mechanised systems. The government’s laissez- faire approach encouraged innovation and investment. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 20

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why railways developed after 1820. [10] (b) To what extent did capitalism cause…

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Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why railways developed after 1820. 10 Indicative content • Economic need – The mass production of goods, and the increasing need for raw materials to produce them, meant that transportation to different areas of the country and to ports for export needed to be done quickly and in quantities so that costs were limited, and profits maximised. Railways could undercut canals by 30% on the cost of moving freight. • Technological development – Neilson’s hot-blast process (1828) reduced the amount of coal used to smelt iron. This led to the production of the necessary quantities of high-quality low cost wrought iron rails. Thus, the construction of railways was a viable proposition. • Steam engine improvements – In the late 1820s improved models emerged as seen at the Rainhill Trials on the Liverpool-Manchester Railway in 1829. Stephenson’s ‘Rocket’ won the competition to decide which locomotive would work the new railway, achieving a top speed of 27 mph and proving more reliable than its rivals. • The end of slavery in 1833 – slave owners received some £16 billion, in today’s money, in compensation and about £8 billion remained in Britain. Thus, there was the money available to invest in railway development – on average it cost £40 000 per mile. The family of William Gladstone, a future Prime Minister, received £80 million and invested £26 million in the Grand Junction Railway (it linked the industrial heartlands of Lancashire and the Midlands). • Necessary skills – the British civil engineering industry had developed the skills needed for railway construction from the experience gained in the canal building program. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) To what extent did capitalism cause the Industrial Revolution? 20 Indicative content Arguments which stress the central role of capitalism might be as follows. Many people with money were prepared to invest in projects (e. g. via purchase of shares) which offered the prospect of a healthy return. The laissez-faire approach of government acted as a further incentive to invest. New farming methods, such as the development of enclosures, were heavily dependent on private capital, as were the significant improvements in transport (roads/canals/railways). It was capitalism which was responsible for the establishing of factories as their owners were able to benefit from cheap labour, largely unprotected by government legislation. However, this central role can be questioned. It was the development in agriculture which raised food production and so was able to sustain a growing population. This population both increased the demand for manufactured goods and provided the labour force which could meet this demand. Developments in transport proved essential to move, in bulk, food, raw materials, and finished goods. This lowered costs which led to increased profits. Inventions and technological advances helped to create a vast increase in the output of coal, iron, food, and manufactured goods. The growth of international trade provided a source of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 21

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the development of steam power was important to the Industrial Revolution. …

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Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why the development of steam power was important to the 10 Industrial Revolution. Indicative content  It led to the development of the factory system as steam powered engines were not suited to the domestic system.  Steam power allowed for the use of more unskilled, and cheaper, labour.  It made the mass production of goods possible. This led to price drops and the creation of consumer demand, e.g. textiles.  Steam power provided a stimulus to coal production and the development of metallurgy.  It revolutionised transport – the railway engine. This stimulated the movement of raw materials and manufactured goods. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) ‘All social classes benefited from the Industrial Revolution.’ How far do 20 you agree? Indicative content The three social groups to consider are the aristocracy, the middle class, and the working class. For the aristocracy, the Industrial Revolution did lead to a gradual lessening of their influence. For example, the growing demand for free trade and the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) showed that the concerns of industry and commerce were now overtaking those of the landed interests in Britain. However, the aristocracy, in some cases, did embrace the Industrial revolution, for example the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal and the Duke of Hamilton’s coalfields. For the middle classes it can be argued that of all the three groups the middle class most definitely did achieve real benefits. Employment was created by the Industrial revolution in the form of industrialists, bankers, merchants, engineers, lawyers, and factory managers. This raised their numbers and their wealth. As industry and commerce began to supersede agriculture as the economy’s dominant force, so the middle class demanded and won greater influence over government policy (Reform Act of 1832 and Municipal Corporations Act of 1835). This increase in status is seen in Sir Robert Peel, son of a northern industrialist, who was a powerful figure in British politics for over 20 years. However, the aristocracy continued to dominate public life; in the 30 years following the Reform Act, apart from Peel, most cabinet members and Prime Ministers were aristocrats. For the working class the Industrial Revolution did provide employment opportunities in the factories, mills and mines which were a bit more secure than the seasonal nature of work in pre-industrial times. Developments in agriculture and transportation allowed food to be supplied in bulk to the growing urban centres. Thus, famine, it might be said, was a thing of the past in industrialised Britain. However, the IR did have a damaging impact on home industries, such as spinning and weaving. The living conditions in the new urban centres, where the working class went seeking employment, were appalling. The lack of effective government regulation created overcrowding in housing and unsanitary conditions in the streets, which led to the rapid spread of disease. When a downturn in trade happened, unemployment followed for the working class, and there was no social welfare net to catch them only the resentful embrace of the workhouse. Therefore, it might be argued that of all the groups the position of the working class was not much different from pre- industrial times. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 22

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why changes in agriculture were important for industrialisation. [10] (b) ‘The …

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Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why changes in agriculture were important for 10 industrialisation. Indicative content  They provided the food to feed an industrial workforce. Thus, a significant proportion of the population was able to move to cities and towns to provide the required labour.  Mechanisation and the application of scientific methods seen to work in agriculture were adopted by industry.  Profits produced by increased agricultural output could be used to invest in technological developments (steam engines) and industries.  The move from subsistence farming to production for profit meant there was a need to transport goods efficiently and cheaply. Hence the developments in roads, canals, and railways, which increased further the demand for labour, coal, steel, and iron. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) ‘The Public Health Act of 1848 was passed because of fear of cholera.’ 20 How far do you agree? Indicative content Arguments could be as follows. Fear of cholera was well established, as in 1832 the Cholera Act had been passed. It gave local boards of health powers to raise rates for the purpose of putting down the disease. The cholera outbreak of 1848 (the third cholera pandemic, 1846–1860) no doubt further focused the government’s thoughts and actions in passing the 1848 Public Health Act. This fear, therefore, made parliament more receptive to calls for legislation on public health. As a water-borne disease cholera was as likely to strike down the well off as the poor. The outbreak claimed 52 000 lives in England and Wales. However, other factors influenced government thinking and actions. Legislation since the 1830s would seem to show government being more proactive regarding working, social and health conditions. For example, the Factory Act of 1833 created an inspectorate, stopped child labour for under- 9s and limited the hours for 9–13-year-old. The 1840s saw the Mines Act (1842), a further Factory Act (1844) and another in 1847. This would seem to suggest that there was an acceptance by government that it did have a role in responding to issues raised by industrialisation. This appears to be borne out in its response to Chadwick’s ‘The Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population of Great Britain.’ (1842) A Royal Commission on the Health of Towns was set up and its two reports, 1844 and 1845, confirmed Chadwick’s findings and established the link between dirt, overcrowding and disease. The founding of Health of Towns Associations in 1844, prompted by Chadwick’s findings, with branches in major industrial centres such as Liverpool and Manchester would suggest government, also, responding to the pressure of public opinion. Self-interest was present in the fact Chadwick had advocated that spending on improved sanitation would improve health and so reduce the money spent on the families of those who died from infectious diseases. Fewer would be claiming poor relief, whose costs had risen due to industrialisation and urbanisation. Economic considerations, therefore, lay behind government action. Also, it was in the interests of government to appease those who paid these costs. Hence the ‘permissive’ rather than ‘compulsive’ nature of the 1848 Act – it gave local authorities powers which they may adopt, but which they did not need to adopt. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 23

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why many people in Britain supported the idea of free trade. [10] (b) To what e…

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Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why many people in Britain supported the idea of free trade. 10 Indicative content • The writings of Adam Smith, 18th. century, and David Ricardo, early 19th. century, were very influential. They argued that industry and trade should be left to develop free from government interference. Tariffs should be ended as they protected inefficient producers from competition and kept prices artificially high, to the detriment of the consumer. • These ideas were taken up by many – as the first country to industrialise British manufacturers had the advantage of little competition and manufacturers, naturally, were against any barrier to the sale of the products. • Tariffs posed a threat to international stability. They led to retaliation, and this could lead to conflict, as seen earlier in the 18th. century. • Free trade was a way to boost exports – if tariffs on imported goods were abolished raw materials would be cheaper and this would make the export of manufactured goods cheaper. This would encourage other nations to buy more from Britain. • Free trade appealed to various groups – for the government it solved the endemic problem of smuggling – for employers the ending of the Corn Laws under a free trade system would lower food prices and keep wage rates down – for workers the boost to exports would protect jobs and create many more. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) To what extent was industrialisation caused by technological changes? 20 Indicative content Arguments to support the role of technological changes could be as follows. Technological developments such as seed drills, flying shuttles and steam engines were all important for the growth of productivity. For example, Arkwright’s water frame (1769) was less suited to domestic production because of its size. This led to the development of factory-based production. In 1771 he opened the first cotton-spinning factory in Cromford, Derbyshire and extended his factory interests to his native Lancashire. By the mid-1780s steam engines began to be used in cotton-spinning factories in Lancashire. The development of steam engines for industrial production required an increasing demand for coal. This needed to be transported in bulk, quickly and cheaply and led to the development of railways. Their development was dependent on technological advances. For example, Neilson’s hot blast process (1828) reduced the amount of coal used to smelt iron. This led to the production of the necessary quantities of high-quality low cost wrought iron rails. Thus, the construction of railways was a viable proposition. In turn railways required large organization, extensive investment, and large-scale employment. The need for iron, steel and coal led to the growth of these industries. This central role, however, can be challenged. The government attitude of laissez-faire regarding industrialisation stimulated innovation and investment. The availability of energy sources in Britain, water, and coal, ensured there was the motive forces to drive industrialisation. Agricultural changes created a plentiful supply of food to feed a growing population which, in turn, provided the labour needed in the factories, mills and mines. This growing population, also, stimulated an internal market for manufactured goods. The extension of international trade, protected by the Royal Navy, meant that demand would not be just limited to the domestic market. The slave trade created the development of an extensive, and increasingly sophisticated, banking and insurance sector. This helped provide funds for investment in new technologies and further industrialisation. The compensation paid to former slave owners following the end of slavery in 1833 (some £16 billion in today’s money, £8 billion of which stayed in Britain) provided a fillip for investment in Britain. The family of William Gladstone, a future Prime Minister, received £80 million in compensation and invested £26 million in the Grand Junction Railway, which linked the industrial heartlands of Lancashire and the Midlands. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 24

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the slave trade was important to the growth of industry. [10] (b) ‘The midd…

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Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why the slave trade was important to the growth of industry. 10 Indicative content • Stimulated British manufacturing and industry through demands for goods, e.g. plantation utensils and clothing for slaves and estates. • British manufacturers benefited by supplying factory made goods in exchange for slaves in Africa. • Places like Manchester became an important textile centre as it made cloth from cheap slave picked cotton. This allowed it to export its goods throughout the world. • Profits made in the slave trade provided money for investment in British industry and fostered innovation and technological development. • Banking and insurance companies offered services to slave merchants to expand and made cities such as London very wealthy. The experience, and funds, gained from these services provided the means for investment in industry. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) ‘The middle classes benefited the most from industrialisation.’ How far 20 do you agree? Indicative content Arguments to show that the middle classes did benefit the most could be as follows. Industrialisation created employment opportunities in the form of industrialists, investors, bankers, merchants, lawyers, engineers, and factory managers. This led to an expansion in numbers and wealth. The greater wealth provided better food and living conditions. This led to fewer deaths and longer living. The increase in personal wealth and more prominent role in the creation of the nation’s wealth ensured that the previously unchallenged economic supremacy of the landed aristocracy came under threat. The nation’s economic polices came to reflect the preferences and priorities of the middle classes (repeal of the Corn Laws, 1846). This increased role in the economy led to demands, which were successful, for greater influence over government policy (Reform Act, 1832 and Municipal Corporations Act, 1835). Industrialisation led to the status of the middle classes being enhanced. Sir Robert Peel the son of a northern industrialist, was a dominant figure in national politics for over 20 years. This view can be challenged. Working people benefited from more secure employment and were not so prone to the seasonal or periodic unemployment as in an agrarian economy. Hence the migration from rural to urban areas, in 1760 16% lived in urban areas but by 1840 it was 54% and continued to rise. However, the working and living conditions in these urban centres were poor. When unemployment occurred, there was no social safety net. Attempts were made to improve working conditions, but they dealt much more with women and children rather than adult male workers. They often led to cuts in family income and longer hours for adult males. Unlike the middle classes, working people received no political recognition (e. g. failure of Chartism). It could be argued that the position of working people was not much better than in pre- industrial times. Despite the Reform Act of 1832 the aristocracy continued to dominate public life. In the following 30 years, except for Peel, most cabinet members and Prime Ministers were members of the aristocracy. Also, few industrialists entered parliament as they were too busy running their businesses, whilst landowners left the running of their estates to their agents and so had the leisure to enter public life. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 25

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why there was opposition to the demands for social reform which were caused by …

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Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why there was opposition to the demands for social reform, 10 caused by the Industrial Revolution. Indicative content • The French Revolution (1789) and war with France (1793–1802 and 1803–1815) raised real fears that demands for such reform were the prelude to violent revolution. • The House of Lords and House of Commons were dominated by landowners, businessmen and professionals. They had no understanding of the lives of the lower classes and so did not support demands for social reform. • To meet the demands for change to living conditions would be expensive (improved housing/sewage pipes). The cost would be borne by the middle classes and the wealthy, who dominated parliament and local government. • To meet the demands for improved working conditions would impact upon the profitability of industry. • It was believed Britain had achieved industrialisation because government had not interfered in business. Any government regulation to meet the demands for social reform caused by industrialisation was a threat to this industrial success. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) ‘The laissez faire approach to economic affairs caused the Industrial 20 Revolution.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Laissez faire means ‘Leave alone.’ Arguments to support the role of laissez faire could be as follows. The laissez faire approach acted as an incentive to invest. The lack of interference meant that many people with money were prepared to invest in projects (e.g. via purchase of shares) which offered the prospect of a healthy return. As a result, factories were established by their owners, not government fiat, as their owners were able to benefit from cheap labour, largely unprotected by government legislation. The laissez faire approach, therefore, encouraged entrepreneurship and technological innovation. However, this view can be challenged. It was the development in agriculture which raised food production and so was able to sustain a growing population. This population both increased the demand for manufactured goods and provided the labour force which could meet this demand. Developments in transport proved essential to move, in bulk, food, raw materials, and finished goods. This lowered costs which led to increased profits. Inventions and technological advances helped to create a vast increase in the output of coal, iron, food, and manufactured goods. It could be argued that the compensation government provided to former slave owners after the ending of slavery in 1833 produced a reservoir of funds which were used for industrialisation (e.g., the railways). Accept any other valid responses.

Question 26

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why electric power was important to rapid industrialisation in this period. […

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6(a) Explain why electric power was important to rapid industrialisation in 10 this period. Indicative content  Edison’s Pearl Street Station was the first commercial power plant in the United States. It was fired by coal and started generating electricity on September 4, 1882, serving an initial load of 400 lamps at 82 customers. By 1884, Pearl Street Station was serving 508 customers with 10 164 lamps.  The use of electricity soon spread to industry. The world's first large– scale central generating station opened at Niagara Falls in 1895, with some of its output transmitted twenty miles away to Buffalo.  At first, most of the current from the Niagara generators was used locally. The production of aluminium and Edward Acheson's newly discovered abrasive "Carborundum" both required tremendous amounts of electricity. But some was transmitted to Buffalo, where it was used for lighting and for street cars which aided urban industrialisation.  Electricity allowed for workers to operate throughout the night  Electricity transformed the transportation of goods across the country. Accept any other valid responses. 6(b) How significant a consequence of industrialisation after 1870 was the 20 rise of organised labour? Indicative content Possible discussions around organised labour might include how, with the rapid expansion of cities and industrialisation in Northern cities, many workers found themselves working in very poor conditions. Unions such as the Knights of Labor formed to help workers have a collective voice; they also allowed black and female workers to join. They argued for an eight–hour working day rather than the long shifts which some workers were being forced into. They also ran campaigns to end child labour as this led to many injuries and deaths amongst children working in factories. Other unions such as The American Federation of Labor founded in 1886 mainly supported skilled people in craft unions. Consideration may also be given to Farming associations. The main farming associations of the time were the Granger Movement in the early 1870s, the Greenback Movement a few years later and the Populist movement of the 1890s. These associations were formed to represent farmers’ concerns over a range of issues: volatile prices were a serious problem: the prices of farm produce could vary greatly from year to year meaning that farmers had to borrow to buy materials and equipment before receiving income from sales. Thus, they were opposed to the power of commercial banks and of railroad companies, which farmers believed overcharged. Therefore, they aimed to regulate the railroads – with some success. The deflationary policy associated with the withdrawal of the US paper currency, the greenback dollar, and the refusal to expand silver–based money, i.e. bimetallism also caused problems. Possible discussions of other impacts of rapid industrialisation might involve Immigration. Between 1865 and 1900, some 13 million people emigrated to America, mostly from Europe. By 1900, one third of Americans were immigrants or children of immigrants. In some major cities the figures reached 70%. The peak was reached in the 1880s, a decade when the economy boomed. Candidates might discuss the impact of this immigration on cultural and economic conditions within cities and link it to the idea of economic prosperity waiting for immigrants arriving in the United States. Living conditions might also be discussed, including the impact of rapid industrialisation on living conditions in major cities such as New York, Chicago, or Pittsburgh. The impact of growing cities saw problems involving housing supply, sanitation, and ill health. This was a major impact of rapid industrialisation and can of course be linked to other factors. Some may also consider the political impact, such as the rise of the Boss system. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 27

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why Progressives campaigned for national prohibition in the early twentieth c…

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6(a) Explain why Progressives campaigned for national prohibition in the 10 early twentieth century. Indicative content  Attempts to ban the sale of alcohol had been around for most of the nineteenth century, gaining support in the 1880s and 1890s. The Anti- Saloon League, formed in 1895, became the main organisation calling for prohibition. The title of this group is significant. Saloons were almost as much the focus of the campaign as was alcohol. Saloons were centres of corrupt and often violent activities, especially in the rapidly expanding cities of the North. They were seen as being linked to the power of party bosses and the dominance of machine politics.  Thus, the campaign for prohibition gained most support from the rural West, from women, who were also campaigning for the vote at the time, from nativists against new immigrant communities, from Protestant churches especially.  The movement gained more support from 1902 after Wayne Wheeler became the leader of the Anti-Saloon League. Under his leadership, the ASL worked within the two-party system, encouraging people to vote across party lines for the ‘dry’ candidate.  When the USA joined the First World War in April 1917, prohibitionists used patriotism to gain more support. Grain used to brew alcohol could be better used in the war effort. Most leading brewers were German Americans. By the end of 1917, Congress had passed the 18th Amendment. Accept any other valid responses. 6(b) ‘The growth of trusts and corporations caused the economic 20 development of the late nineteenth century.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Possible discussions around the influence of trusts may include the following. A trust was a device for bringing together any number of companies providing the same goods or service into a centrally controlled organisation the aim of which was to dominate the sector. This allowed prices to be fixed or production controlled. The member companies remained separate entities while strategic management was done by the trust. The best-known trusts were the Standard Oil Trust, formed in 1882, and US Steel, formed in 1901. J D Rockefeller was the head of Standard Oil, Andrew Carnegie of U S Steel. Other major sectors organised into trusts included copper, tobacco, and sugar. There were economic reasons for creating trusts: they usually enabled integration of production, whether horizontal or vertical, allowing companies to be more efficient. If a trust had a large enough share of the market, then it could prevent new companies from entering the market. These various reasons helped increase the profits of trust members and encourage investment in these industries which had a knock-on effect in the wider economy. The wider context for the growth of trusts and organisations is that the US political and legal system of the time allowed these companies to come together into trusts: the Republicans, friends of big business, controlled Washington DC, and laissez faire was the predominant ideology of the time. Possible discussion of other factors which led to economic development may include the following points. New inventions such as electrical power, the internal combustion engine, the typewriter [1867], celluloid [1870] and the telephone [1876] are all technological innovations relevant to this period. While many inventions were labour-saving devices, leading to unemployment, others resulted in new products and services which were bought by the ‘early adopters’ of the time, thus creating new employment opportunities. Thus, innovative technologies did help the continued growth of the industrial sector. Other financial/cultural circumstances also led to economic development. For example, capital came either from American banks or the City of London in sufficient quantities to allow for investment in industry. The individualistic, entrepreneurial culture of the USA also led to growth because it ensured competition between the inventors of the new technologies, for example incandescent light bulbs and electricity supply. Furthermore, the US system of patents also encouraged innovation because, unusually, it granted patents to improvements to inventions as well as the initial invention. This encouraged many to adapt new products to gain patent rights. In addition, it can be argued that trusts stunted economic development by driving smaller businesses out of the market. This meant that there was less potential for the development of new ideas and greater competition to bring down prices and benefit consumers for example the railways. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 28

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s–1920 (a) Explain why Progressive presidents changed the laws governing business. [10] (b) ‘The ex…

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6(a) Explain why Progressive presidents changed the laws governing 10 business. Indicative content  The main anti-trust laws were (a) the Sherman Anti-Trust Act 1890, and (b) two Acts in 1914, one setting up the Federal Trade Commission, the other, known as the Clayton Act, filling in gaps in the Sherman Act, e.g., price discrimination and mergers and acquisitions.  The Acts were passed because of the growing tendency of American big business to establish cartels or monopolies usually labelled as trusts. Trusts such as Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Trust faced increasing criticism for acting against the public interest; in 1911, it was forced to split into seven smaller companies. Thus, the passage of anti-trust laws showed both the unpopularity of the trusts and the political organisation of groups and individuals opposed to their existence.  Democrats were much keener on anti-trust legislation and action than were the Republicans. The US Supreme Court often limited the impact of anti-trust laws. This was one reason why the two Acts of 1914 were passed.  Growing union opposition to big business led to increasing pressure for improvement of worker rights and conditions.  Public health concern led to acts like the food and drugs Act 1906 to prevent adulteration of basic foods etc. Accept any other valid responses. 6(b) ‘The expansion of railroads caused the rapid industrialisation of the late 20 nineteenth century.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Possible discussion points on the impact of the railroads:  In 1870 there were 50 000 miles of track, by 1890 163 000. From the opening of the first transcontinental line in 1869, links between east and west coasts became much faster.  Economists such as W W Rostow argued that this growth was the major cause of wider economic growth: it ensured the existence of a proper national market; reduced transport costs and widened markets for a wide range of goods; it stimulated growth of the iron, steel and coal industries; its need for capital helped develop the capital market which benefited other industries.  Other historians challenged this view. They argued that the railroads played a limited part in the growth of iron and steel industries and thus that their development was less significant for longer-term economic growth. Other possible factors for discussion:  Candidates may discuss the technological inventions of the period e.g. electrical power, the internal combustion engine, the typewriter [1867], celluloid, [1870] and the telephone [1876] – these ideas should be linked to how they encouraged industrialisation in a period which is often labelled as the ‘Second Industrial Revolution’.  Also relevant was the individualistic, entrepreneurial culture of the USA which ensured competition between the inventors of the new technologies, e.g. incandescent light bulbs and electricity supply. The US system of patents also encouraged innovation because, unusually, it granted patents to improvements to inventions as well as the initial invention. This encouraged many to adapt new products to gain patent rights.  Tariffs and the politics of an increasingly global trade network may also be discussed. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 29

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why there was an economic panic in 1873. [10] (b) ‘The 19th Amendment was the…

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6(a) Explain why there was an economic panic in 1873. 10 Indicative content • The newly unified country of Germany changed the way it used gold and silver in its banking system which caused a financial crisis in Europe. This resulted in a drop in demand for American farm products. • Financial problems in Europe meant that many investors began to sell off the railroad bonds they had bought. These bonds had helped to build railroads across the United States and as they flooded the market railroad companies went bankrupt (89 out of 364). • One of the biggest banks in New York, Jay Cooke and company, went bankrupt as a result of their heavy reliance on railroad bonds. • Jay Cooke and co. falling began a run on the bank as people panicked about the safety of their money. This panic soon spread across the country with at least 100 banks failing. Accept any other valid responses. 6(b) ‘The 19th Amendment was the most significant reform of the 20 Progressive era.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Possible discussion of the 19th amendment might include the passing of the 19th amendment which gave women the right to vote was clearly a success for the suffrage campaign which had been active since 1848. That women had the right to vote by 1920 was a major success and not necessarily one that could have been predicted even earlier in the decade when Wilson was reluctant to take on the cause nationally. Candidates might discuss how much of a success it really was in terms of changing the lives of women in a social and economic sense. Other areas of discussion for reforms of the Progressive movement might include the Progressive Era when there were three other amendments to the Constitution which arguably were significant achievements for the Progressive agenda. The 16th amendment authorised direct income tax and was the first amendment in more than forty years. It was a victory for those progressives who spent years trying to break up monopolies and corruption in business across the United States. The 17th amendment established direct elections to the Senate which underlined Progressive commitment to direct democracy. The 18th was arguably the most significant as it imposed prohibition on the country. This was the result of a long fight for temperance that many Progressives had been involved in. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 30

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why cooperative societies began to develop after 1800. [10] (b) ‘The main cause…

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2(a) Explain why cooperative societies began to develop after 1800. 10 Indicative content The cooperative movement was based on the supplanting of capitalism and emphasised cooperation over individualism. • Increasing mechanisation forced more skilled workers into poverty. In banding together to open their own stores they were able to access food they could not otherwise afford. • Cooperative societies were an alternative strategy for working people when strikes collapsed. By 1830 about 300 cooperative trade associations existed with 20 000 members. • Workers were educated to the potential of collective action through cooperative journals. For example, ‘The Cooperator’ attacked the wastefulness of capitalist competition. • Cooperative societies were encouraged by individuals such as Robert Owen. • Lack of help for the working classes from government, trade unions and Chartism. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘The main cause of industrial growth was the slave trade.’ How far do 20 you agree? Indicative content Arguments to support this view could be as follows. Goods used to barter for slaves in Africa were the products of British manufacturers (cotton items/guns/iron pots). In addition, the goods plantations needed to maintain their slaves (iron chains/kitchen utensils/cotton clothing) were supplied by British manufacturers. This encouraged factory production. The slave trade led to the development of ports (e.g. Liverpool). The slaves once sold in the Americas, particularly the southern states of USA, and the Caribbean produced raw materials such as cotton which drove the cotton production of cities such as Manchester, allowing them to export cotton goods across the world. Profits from slavery were invested in industrial developments (machinery) and transport changes (railways). The compensation paid to former slave owners when slavery was abolished amounted to some £16 billion in today’s money, and approximately £8 billion of this stayed in Britain. This provided a further fillip to industrialisation. Banks and insurance companies offered services to slave merchants to expand and made cities like London very wealthy. The experience, and the funds, gained from these services provided the means for industrial investment. This view can be challenged. Developments in agriculture led to increased food production which was able to feed a growing population. This population generated further demand for manufactured goods and provided the labour force needed to meet this increased demand. The possession of a large empire provided not just access to raw materials but markets for manufactured goods, thereby promoting industrial growth. Britain’s access to a plentiful supply of coal provided the fuel to drive industrialisation. The government’s laissez-faire approach not only allowed entrepreneurs to develop industries and support technical innovations (steam engines) but, also, kept Britain free from internal tariffs. This reduced costs, made goods cheaper and stimulated demand. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 31

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s–1920 (a) Explain why successive US governments took little action to limit private corporations. …

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5(b) How important were the railroads to the industrialisation of the USA? 20 Indicative content The railroads are usually seen as being extremely important in that they created an integrated national market for foodstuffs, goods and services. They also stimulated demand for iron and steel which were the foundation stones of industrialisation. The growth of railroads also created infrastructure which was vital to the modernisation of the USA. As the major new industry of the era and needing great investment, the railroads helped stimulate the growth of US banking and finance. However, it can be argued that the economic benefits of the railroads were less important than other factors such as technological innovations, e.g. electric lighting and dynamos. Similarly, it might be argued that the availability of cheap labour from the growth in immigration promoted industrialisation more so than the railroad. Business entrepreneurs such as Rockefeller and Carnegie may be identified as being more closely associated with industrialisation, as might Protective Tariffs which ensured the domestic market was able to flourish without too much competition from foreign imports. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 32

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why agricultural output had increased by 1800. [10] (b) ‘The political impact o…

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2(a) Explain why agricultural output had increased by 1800. 10 Indicative content • A rise in population led to an increase in demand which impacted agricultural processes. • Agricultural techniques changed – seed drills, more careful livestock breeding and use of fertilisers. • Enclosures enabled more efficient farming, more land was available for food production and less labour was used. The latter lowered costs and allowed for continued innovation. • The increasing profits from food production led to greater investment in agriculture and further increases in production. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘The political impact of the Industrial Revolution on Britain in this period 20 was huge.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Arguments to support this view might include how the Industrial Revolution led to the rise of a dynamic middle class which, after it had gained economic muscle, went on to demand political power and direction of policy (Reform Act, 1832 and Repeal of the Corn Laws, 1846). Sir Robert Peel, son of a northern industrialist, was Prime Minister on two occasions. The survival of trade unions, the creation of cooperative societies and the Chartist agitation did show a politicisation of the lower classes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. By 1850 there was a growing acceptance that governments did have a duty to interfere in areas, hitherto, thought to be beyond their remit, e. g working and living conditions (Factory Acts/Public Health Act). However, this can be challenged. Whilst Peel might be the son of an industrialist Prime Ministers in this period were aristocrats with landed wealth. There was some extension of the franchise to the new industrial towns, but it was limited. Middle class businessmen might have control over local affairs, but they showed no inclination, yet, to enter the national stage via parliament. Unlike the aristocracy they could not afford an estate manager to manage their interests whilst they sat as MPs and government ministers. The lower classes did not have the vote and this was something which both the aristocracy and the middle classes, for the most part, wished to maintain. Trade unions did survive in this period, but their membership was limited and they were hidebound by government legislation, be it Whig or Tory. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 33

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s–1920 (a) Explain why many Progressive laws were passed during Woodrow Wilson’s presidency. [10] (…

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5(a) Explain why many Progressive laws were passed during Woodrow 10 Wilson’s presidency. Indicative content • Woodrow Wilson had the backing of a useful range of politicians because he spoke effectively in Congress and made a point of supporting states’ rights. His appointments had widespread appeal (labour leaders, first Jewish member of Supreme Court) and this made it more possible for him to gain support for the laws he introduced. • Many of his Progressive reforms had the backing of the general public. For example, they supported laws granting more workers’ rights, support for labour unions, and an end to child labour as well as anti-trust reforms. • Woodrow Wilson explained why these laws were needed in a way that showed he was not attacking individuals’ or states’ rights but realigning the laws to reflect the changing nature and features of the American economy. He explained that US laws were out of date because they were designed to regulate small businesses. He gained more support for his Progressive laws because he explained why laws needed to be changed. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) To what extent were trade policies the cause of rapid industrial growth 20 in the late nineteenth century? Indicative content Trade policies supported the rapid growth of industry in several ways. Within the US, government policies designed to open up the US and create better links within and across the country meant that land was granted to railroad companies to help finance and support the companies. This helped rapid industrial growth by improving the transport infrastructure, enabling the fast movement of raw materials and products. Given that the US was rich in raw materials, this was an important factor. In addition, government policy helped American industry by protecting industrial products from foreign competition. In the late nineteenth-century, the US had some of highest tariffs in the world. For example, the 1890 Tariff Act which was passed to protect further American industrial products meant that the average tariff on industrial imports was nearly 50%. Lack of regulation allowed entrepreneurs to accumulate vast industrial empires, ensuring their profits through virtual monopolies. There were other factors that encouraged rapid industrial growth. American inventors made technological innovations, for example in communications, that increased the speed of business activities. Large scale immigration contributed by providing a large workforce. The new immigrants were different from earlier waves of immigrants in that they were looking for employment rather than seeking to make their fortunes by setting up their own businesses or farming. Although there was some internal migration of people looking for work in industry, the new immigrants played an important role. The presence of entrepreneurial industrialists with the characteristics needed to develop their industrial empires was also essential if industry was to grow rapidly. Financial institutions existed and had a ready supply of money to invest in industry. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 34

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the factory system was important in the development of the Industrial Revol…

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2(a) Explain why the factory system was important in the development of the 10 Industrial Revolution in Britain. Indicative content • It allowed for economies of scale in mass-produced goods which lowered the cost of production leading to lower prices and an increase in demand for manufactured goods. • Factories needed a labour force which encouraged migration, creating urbanisation, further fuelling demand. • Factories needed increasing amounts of raw materials (cotton/coal), which created a growth in trade, both international and internal. • Goods and raw materials needed to be transported which led to developments in transport – roads, canals, railways and steam ships. • To meet these changes prompted by the factory system other industries developed – coal, iron and steel. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘The Swing Riots were a response to economic hardship.’ How far do 20 you agree? Indicative content Arguments to support might take the following form. There was a long period of economic depression in the south and east of England following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. This led landowners and tenants to cut costs (i.e., wages). The continued rise in population outstripped that of available job opportunities. Therefore, rural poverty had increased in these regions. Wages for agricultural workers in these areas tended to be lower than in the northwest of England. In part, this was due to the differing job opportunities. Agriculture in the north required more constant, if less intense, labour. Factories, docks and building works created further job opportunities. The harvests of 1828 and 1829 were particularly poor, causing food prices to rise. The desire to attain a minimum living wage was a further spur to the agricultural workers’ actions. The primacy of economic hardship can be questioned. It was a protest against agricultural mechanisation, such as threshing machines, which threatened the livelihood of agricultural workers. One machine could do the work of several unskilled men. Growing mechanisation had led to a change in the status of agricultural workers. Instead of, as in the 1780s, receiving wages in a salary for the year, it became a monthly payment and then the contracts became weekly. Thus, the working lives of the agricultural workers became precarious. The desire for a return to a more traditional form of labour relations can be seen in the targets chosen by the Swing rioters. For example: the burning of hay ricks of farmers who paid wages below the local odds; Poor Law Overseers who were overzealous in carrying out their duties would receive threatening letters or be burnt in effigy. It could be argued, therefore, that the Swing riots showed that paternalism, which had informed pre-industrial Britain and which many in government saw as the glue binding the country together, had broken down. This was because agriculture, like manufacturing, experienced changes created by increased mechanisation. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 35

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s–1920 (a) Explain why Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell were able to become successful busin…

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5(a) Explain why Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell were able to 10 become successful businessmen. Indicative content • In both cases they were both inventors and entrepreneurs; the combination of these two characteristics was key. • Both inventors made use of new power source, electricity. • Their inventions, such as the light bulb and telephone, were useful in a range of contexts. • Both men were entrepreneurial. They did not simply invent new devices; they developed their inventions to be commercially viable and engaged in large-scale production. In addition, Bell had a near monopoly on telephones and made use of the holding company system to expand his telephone system nation-wide. • Both made use of the Patent Acts so that others could not copy their ideas without paying. Bell bought patents in the technology needed to expand the telephone system. • Edison continued to develop ideas, making further research possible by setting up a research laboratory to work on inventions. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) To what extent do you agree that the ‘boss’ system was responsible for 20 poor living conditions in cities in the late nineteenth century. Indicative content The local government system in late-nineteenth-century cities meant that it was possible for an individual to have enormous power. The systems were adequate for small towns, but not the rapidly expanding industrial cities of the era. Consequently, an alternative system developed, organised by city leaders, to address the problems and needs associated, for example, with jobs, housing, and the need for land for industrial and transport development. This system was rife with corruption at every level. The city bosses, for example Tweed in New York, controlled local officials using paid agents. Through them, the bosses controlled every aspect of the cities. Given that they pocketed tax money at city and state level that was intended for improvements, they were ultimately responsible for all aspects of the city infrastructure, including living conditions. Where these conditions were poor, they must, therefore, be held responsible. The bosses controlled both jobs and housing for rural and foreign immigrants in the cities. Jobs and housing were interdependent, so the poor had no means of bettering their living conditions. Failure to clean the streets of the many health hazards or to ensure uncontaminated water supplies can also be blamed on the ‘bosses’. On the other hand, the poor conditions were simply a result of the fast rate of growth. For example, Chicago grew from 300 000 to 1.5 million inhabitants between 1870 and 1900. It was not possible to accommodate this degree of population expansion in good quality housing. The fault also lay with the failure to adapt the local government system which had worked for small towns but was not adequate for rapidly growing cities. New transport systems such as railroads meant the richer inhabitants moved to suburbs while the poor were concentrated near places of work in the centres, with high population density in ill-ventilated and insanitary tenements. The rich, therefore, had no vested interest in financing improvements. Contagious diseases were rife and easily spread at a time when methods of prevention were not well-understood and it was impossible for the poor to avoid infection. Landlords were intent on maximising profits, and hence did not make the necessary sanitary provision, with poor or non-existent running water, sewage disposal, and fire safety. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 36

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the factory system developed. [10] (b) ‘By 1850 industrialisation had under…

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2(a) Explain why the factory system developed. 10 Indicative content • Availability of a large supply of cheap and unskilled labour. • Growth of entrepreneurship and easy access to capital, encouraged by governments’ laissez-faire outlook. • Growth of technological developments (steam power). • Growth in demand for manufactured goods (rising population) and availability of raw materials (e.g. internally, coal and externally, cotton). • Concentration of production processes in one place was cheaper and more efficient than continuing with the farming out system, particularly textiles. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘By 1850 industrialisation had undermined aristocratic influence.’ How 20 far do you agree? Indicative content Arguments to support the view might be as follows. Aristocratic economic power lay in the ownership of land, but industrialisation meant that this power now resided in the ownership of factories and machines. The interests of the industrial middle classes seemed to be dominating the national debate – the Corn Laws, which favoured the aristocratic landed interest, were repealed in 1846 in favour of free trade. The 1832 Reform Act, in part a response to the growth of industrial towns and cities, gave the middle class a voice in parliament. For the first time Manchester, Leeds and Birmingham, major industrial centres, received their own representation. The Municipal Corporation Act, 1835, allowed for the dominance of local government by the industrial middle class. At a national level, Sir Robert Peel, son of a northern industrialist, served twice as Prime Minister (PM) (1834–35 and 1841–46). This view can be challenged. Aristocrats embraced industrialisation from the outset – the Duke of Bridgewater and his canal building. The coalfields of northeast England and Welsh valleys had aristocratic owners. Whilst Peel might have been PM on two occasions, he was an exception. PMs were invariably aristocrats. The PM in 1850 was Lord John Russell, the third son of the Duke of Bedford. Whilst the middle classes had the vote, they did not return a significantly larger number of middle-class MPs. Of those elected in December 1832 between 70–80 per cent represented landed interests. Also, the number of county seats increased from 80 to 144 in England and from 12 to 15 in Wales. Lord John Russell earned the nickname ‘Finality Jack’ when he stated that the 1832 Reform Act was a final measure. By 1850 Britain was industrialised but the aristocratic influence still dominated. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 37

The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s–1920 (a) Explain why late-nineteenth-century cities were unhealthy and unsafe. [10] (b) How far d…

Accepted Answer

5(a) Explain why late-nineteenth-century cities were unhealthy and unsafe. 10 Indicative content • The cities were unhealthy and unsafe because they grew so fast and there were inadequate regulation and lack of enforcement of preventative measures. • City governments did not have the capacity to cope with the rate of growth in industrial towns. They could not provide the water and sanitation needed for such a vast influx of people. In addition, the corruption associated with the boss system meant that there was no mechanism for enforcing building regulations, rules about overcrowding and so on. • Most of the incomers were poor and those from abroad were often vulnerable because they did not understand English. • At the same time, transport infrastructures improved so that middle class urbanites moved out of the city centres. They were consequently less impacted by the unhealthy, unsafe environments and were, therefore, less inclined to lobby for improvements. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) How far do you agree with the view that trusts and corporations were 20 beneficial to the USA? Indicative content Trusts and corporations helped the US to become a leading economic power, with fast growth and great wealth. These institutions allowed the development of the railroad system, and industries such as oil and steel. The exploitation of natural resources benefited the economy as a whole and the improved transport network led to further economic growth. Consumers could be protected from fluctuations in prices and large numbers were employed by these organisations. However, while the trusts and corporations benefited the economy, they had a detrimental effect on individuals. These monopolistic super-companies depended on low taxation which meant that government had less money. They could fix prices and lack of competition meant little choice or incentive for innovation. They often employed people on low wages and in poor conditions. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 38

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why capitalism was important for the development of the Industrial Revolution i…

Accepted Answer

2(a) Explain why capitalism was important for the development of the 10 Industrial Revolution in Britain. Indicative content • Encouraging and developing a sophisticated banking and investing system for raising capital for factory and transport developments (cornerstones of industrialisation). • Profits from agriculture and the slave trade were invested in industrial development. • Risk could be shared and profits reinvested, with dividends generating wealth for future investment • The development of railways was not possible without capitalism. On average one mile of railway cost £40000, governments did not have the funds to meet this demand. • created jobs in factories encouraging urbanisation Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘Governments responded positively to demands for change caused by 20 industrialisation.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Arguments to support this view could be as follows. The Combination Acts were repealed in 1824 because there was a view that such acts only encouraged workers to combine in unions. In addition, it was felt, by more liberal-minded politicians that unions were a necessary part of a free society. Governments were more willing to concede to demands for reform from the middle classes than the lower classes because in so doing the existing order was preserved. This can be seen in the 1832 Reform Act which did grant more middle-class parliamentary representation, but through its emphasis on property rights detached the middle classes from the lower classes. The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) can be seen, also, in this light. By repealing the laws, it ended potentially more radical demand for change and so preserved the status of the aristocracy. Demands for change sometimes were acceded to by government because there was a growing acceptance that in the circumstances created by industrialisation government should take a more active role (e.g., Public Health Act 1848). Arguments to challenge the view might consider how Governments ignored the calls for social assistance from mill workers to help with economic hardships caused by increased mechanisation but sent troops to deal with the following actions of the Luddites. In 1825, following the outbreak of a series of strikes, a Combination Act was introduced which imposed limits on workers’ right to strike. In March 1834, the Tolpuddle Martyrs were transported for making an illegal oath when joining a trade union. This was prompted by the government’s alarm at the creation of the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union (GNCTU). The demands of the Chartists were opposed in Parliament, with heavy votes against the two petitions presented in 1839 and 1842. In 1848, Parliament simply refused to receive a third Chartist petition. Also, troops and the newly developing police forces were employed to intimidate the Chartists. Accept any other valid responses.

Question 39

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why the Luddite movement developed. [10] (b) ‘It was improvements in transport …

Accepted Answer

2(a) Explain why the Luddite movement developed. 10 Indicative content • War – a product of the harsh economic climate of the Napoleonic Wars (Napoleon’s Continental System of economic warfare, increasing cost of waging war and escalating conflict with USA) led to a rise in difficult working conditions in the new textile factories. • Technology – Luddites objected to the growing popularity, amongst textile factory owners, of automated textile equipment. Their use threatened the livelihood of skilled workers as this new technology allowed them to be replaced by cheaper and less skilled workers. • Government indifference – the period 1810–1812 saw high unemployment and inflation. This led to widespread protest, but the government ignored pleas for assistance to ease the workers’ suffering. • Self-worth – Many Luddites were owners of small workshops that had closed because factories could sell similar products for less. They resented the fact that the time spent learning the skills of their craft was a waste as, now, machines could replace their role in the industry. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘It was improvements in transport that brought about industrial 20 development.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Arguments in support of the statement. The development of canals made it possible to transport goods in bulk. Raw materials such as cotton could be moved inland from ports, whilst finished goods could be moved to the ports for export. This all acted as a spur to increased industrial production. Without canals it is unlikely that initial industrialisation would have happened. In addition, to be built canals needed investment (it was £1 million per annum in the 1790s) and this need led to the development of a sophisticated banking system and the growth of joint-stock banks. This financial system further contributed to industrialisation by providing ready access to funds for industrial enterprises. Railways and steam ships continued this stimulus to industrialisation with their demand for iron, steel, and coal, along with their need for investment. Whilst railways moved goods speedily in bulk within the country, steam ships did the same externally. The view might be challenged by consideration of how the changes in agriculture led to increased production and created increased profits which were invested in industrial enterprises. The availability of food also led to improved diets which helped bring about a growth in population. This, in turn, created a growing demand for goods which increased industrialisation and provided the labour force needed to maintain industrial output. Mechanisation not only increased production but led to price falls which acted as a further stimulus for increased demand and industrialisation. The support for laissez- faire capitalism by governments throughout this period meant the economic environment was very supportive of industrial entrepreneurs. Accept any other valid responses.

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