Cambridge A Level History 9489 — 2022 May/June Paper 2 · Variant 1

1 France, 1774–1814 (a) Explain why Louis XVI issued the edict of 24 January 1789, summoning the Estates General. [10] (b) To what extent was the Directory a failure? [20]

Mark scheme: Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why Louis XVI issued the edict of 24 January 1789, 10 summoning the Estates General. Indicative content  The king and his ministers had failed to find solutions to the range of problems that the Ancien Régime faced, in particular financial issues.  The efforts of other institutions had proved to be no better. The Paris Parlement and Assembly of Notables failed to provide answers.  There was severe economic distress in the country which was leading to social disorder (e.g., the Day of Tiles in Grenoble, 1788).  The inability to provide solutions created a crisis of confidence amongst the money markets in the French government’s financial stability and credit was becoming more and more problematic to obtain. It was felt that the Estates General would provide the means to create new taxes and other changes to fix what was wrong with the system Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) To what extent was the Directory a failure? 20 Indicative content The fact that Napoleon’s coup of 1799 was successful shows that the Directory had lost support and indicates that its government had been a failure. There had been other coups (18 Fructidor V, 22 Floreal VI, 30 Prairial VII) which showed not only a lack of support for its policies but proved detrimental to its reputation. This was compromised further by manipulation of elections, such as in 1797 and 1799. In terms of the economy there was a partial bankruptcy and debt repudiation in 1797. It could be argued that the Directory was a temporary measure after the years of turmoil, and, as such, it could satisfy neither the radical nor conservative elements in France. Thus, there were significant neo-Jacobin and royalist gains in several elections. The view, however, can be challenged. The Directory did end the Terror and provided stability despite significant internal divisions. It made democratic institutions work for a time. For example, annual elections and the secret ballot. The constitution of 1795 created a broad electorate, with, by 18th century standards, an extensive franchise. There was a degree of peace and stability within France, which was greater than it had been since 1789. The decision to dispatch Napoleon to Italy had provided it with some military glory through his victories in the Italian campaign. Accept any other valid responses.

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2 The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why there was rapid urbanisation in the period 1750–1850. [10] (b) ‘The availability of energy sources was the most important reason Britain experienced an Industrial Revolution.’ How far do you agree? [20]

Mark scheme: 2(a) Explain why there was rapid urbanisation in the period 1750–1850. 10 Indicative content  There was mass migration from rural to urban areas. In 1760, some 16% lived in urban areas, but by 1840 it was 54%, and continued to rise.  Factories, mines, and railways needed workers to sustain production.  Developments in agriculture meant that it was possible to sustain large urban populations.  Changes in transport (roads/canals/railways) meant that such foodstuffs could be transported in bulk, and so affordable, to these growing urban centres.  The development of international trade and markets stimulated the growth of ports, providing employment and attracting people to move to these growing centres. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘The availability of energy sources was the most important reason 20 Britain experienced an Industrial Revolution.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Areas in Britain such as the North and the North Midlands possessed plentiful fast-flowing streams which provided the initial motive power for mills and factories. Britain possessed, also, an additional source of energy supply in the form of coal. There were rich coal seams in South Wales, the East Midlands, South Yorkshire, the North-East and Central Scotland. The relatively small size of Britain meant that the energy source would not have to travel great distances to where it was needed, thereby limiting costs and acting as an encouragement to industrialise. However, there were other factors which can be used to question the primacy of energy sources in causing Britain to experience the Industrial Revolution. Britain’s possession of numerous navigable rivers aided the movement of bulky goods. This meant production could grow, an aspect further helped by the fact access to the sea, vital for the development of foreign trade, was easy for most parts of the country. In addition, Britain’s Royal Navy ensured that international trade was safeguarded and allowed for the, almost, continuous export of manufactured goods. The damp climate in the North-West of England was conducive to the processing of raw cotton. Agricultural developments (it has been estimated agriculture in 1800 was 40–50 per cent more productive than 100 years earlier) helped to create not only a rise in population, and, thereby, demand for finished goods, but also, ensured that industrial enterprises would be able to have a labour force sustained by a plentiful supply of food. Government adopted a laissez-faire approach regarding business and industry. This encouraged enterprise and allowed innovation to develop unhindered. Accept any other valid responses.

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3 Liberalism and nationalism in Germany, 1815–71 (a) Explain why the Franco–Prussian War broke out in 1870. [10] (b) How strong was German nationalism by 1850? [20]

Mark scheme: 3(a) Explain why the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870. 10 Indicative content  To some it was the final stage in Bismarck’s long-term plan to create a united Germany. The wars of 1864 and 1866 (Denmark and Austria) had increased Prussia’s standing in Europe and led to the creation of the North German Confederation. A victorious war against the French would lead to the creation of a unified Germany, which would be a dominant European power.  It was due to a desire by Prussia to seek revenge. The Hohenzollern candidacy for the Spanish throne was withdrawn in July 1870. However, the French insisted it should never be renewed. This was seen as an affront to the honour of the Prussian royal family. To restore this honour Bismarck re-worked the Ems telegram which provoked France to declare war.  France felt its international standing was undermined by the Prussian victories of 1864 and 1866. It wanted to assert its authority, made doubly necessary following the failure of its Mexican expedition.  Napoleon III was facing domestic troubles as there were growing demands for democratic reform, and rumours were rife about an impending revolution. A victorious war against Prussia would lead to gains in the Rhineland and restore unity amongst the French nation behind a Bonapartist dynasty.  Recent military reforms convinced the political and military leaderships of France that they would emerge victorious in any conflict with Prussia. Accept any other valid responses. 3(b) How strong was German nationalism by 1850? 20 Indicative content The granting of land along the Rhine in 1815 doubled Prussia’s population and increased its access to raw materials (coal/iron), which allowed for the growth of industry. This industrial growth, allied with economic growth brought about by the Zollverein after 1834, bolstered the hopes of German nationalists. A growing unity in economic affairs, why not a unity in political affairs? As German states developed economically the middle-classes grew in importance. Aware of their contribution to the economy’s development, they wanted more rights and powers. They felt that the best way to achieve these was through a unified Germany. There was an awareness of a distinct German cultural identity, as seen in the folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm and in academic studies showing the common origin of the various dialects in the German states. The 1848 revolutions led to demands, particularly amongst liberals, for a united Germany and it was argued that a new German Parliament should meet in Frankfurt. This parliament drew up a German constitution in March 1849 – German states to be united in a German Empire headed by a German Emperor. The extent of nationalism can be questioned. Despite Prussia’s undoubted economic strength, agriculture still dominated its economy, and that of the other German states. Peasants were more concerned with dealing with 3(b) issues of surviving at a subsistence level, rather than with German nationalism. The Prussian monarchy was authoritarian, not liberal – Frederick William IV refused the imperial crown in 1849 because it came from the Frankfurt Parliament and not the German Princes. German Princes were opposed to nationalism as a united Germany needed only one Prince. Austria still dominated the German states in 1850. At Olmütz the Austrians had ended Prussian plans to create a German union which excluded Austria and had Prussia at its head. The Frankfurt Parliament failed to unify the German states. It never gained the support of the lower classes and was seen as a talking-shop and any rebellions it encouraged to reject the existing order were put down. Whilst a clear cultural identity did exist, it had not, by 1850, translated into a political reality. Accept any other valid responses.

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4 The origins of the Civil War, 1820–61 (a) Explain why the Compromise of 1850 was agreed. [10] (b) To what extent was the growing strength of abolitionism the reason for Lincoln’s victory in the 1860 presidential election? [20]

Mark scheme: 4(a) Explain why the Compromise of 1850 was agreed. 10 Indicative content The Compromise of 1850 was agreed to attempt to solve the ongoing question of slavery and the splits it was causing in the country. The specific need for a compromise in 1850 had been caused by the issues raised by the Mexican American war.  The end of the Mexican American war in 1848 saw the United States take control of a large portion of land in the west of the continent – known as the Mexican Cession. Even before the end of the war discussion had raged over what to do with new lands. In 1846 the Wilmot Proviso had proposed a ban on slavery in any newly acquired territory. The Wilmot Proviso passed through the House of Representatives but failed in the Senate.  Another issue which was causing division was the fugitive slave act and its implementation. Abolitionists wanted to outlaw slavery in the District of Columbia whilst pro slavery activists wanted to strengthen the reach of the fugitive slave act in Northern states.  Another pressing issue was California. Many settlers had flocked to the state in the late 1840s after the discovery of gold. The number of settlers meant that California was ready to be fast-tracked to become a full state but again the question of whether it should enter the union as a free or slave state causes division.  Kentucky Senator Henry Clay ‘The Great Compromiser’ worked in Congress to put together the terms of the 1850 compromise which would try to satisfy both sides. The main terms were: A new, stricter fugitive slave law; the admission of California as a free state; popular sovereignty in New Mexico and Utah; a ban of slave trading in Washington D.C. Accept any other valid responses. 4(b) To what extent was the growing strength of abolitionism the reason for 20 Lincoln’s victory in the 1860 Presidential election? Indicative content Possible discussions around the growth in abolitionism: The growth in abolitionist feeling in the Northern states was clearly important to the political situation of the late 1850s. Many had been radicalised by the horrors of Bleeding Kansas earlier in the decade and supported extreme abolitionist positions. After John Brown’s raid on Harper’s Ferry there were those in the North that celebrated him as a martyr although many also condemned his actions. However, this did not mean that abolitionists flocked to Lincoln as a candidate. Lincoln was clearly against slavery, but he was not in favour of its rapid and total abolition. Many abolitionists questioned whether Lincoln was really a man they could vote for or whether they should wait for a candidate that was a pure abolitionist. The Annual Report of the American Anti-Slavery Society [AASS] considered Lincoln ‘a good enough Republican for the party’s purposes, but far from being the man for the country’s need.’ Other areas for discussion: Splits within the Democrat party – the Democrats met in Charleston in April 1860 to choose their candidate for the election in tumultuous mood. Northern Democrats wanted to nominate Stephen Douglas because they felt he had the best chance of beating Republicans in the North. Douglas though was an enemy of many Southern Democrats because of his championing of popular sovereignty in new territories. Southern Democrats left the convention and later nominated the then Vice-President John C. Breckenridge. This split would prove fatal to Democratic electoral hopes. Republican electoral tactics – Republicans met in Chicago in May and understood that any candidate they chose had to be able to carry the North and win the Electoral College. New Jersey, Illinois, Pennsylvania and Indiana were particularly important states to win. Lincoln emerged as the man who would symbolise the hard-working self-made man of the frontier in these states. His choice was an astute political tactic by Republicans who realised the impact that the Democratic split would have. Smaller parties – Another group of politicians wanted slavery to not be the central issue of the election and so formed the Constitutional Unionist Party and nominated John Bell as their candidates. This further split the vote in some areas and helped hand victory to Lincoln. With four presidential candidates in the field, Lincoln received only 40% of the popular vote and 180 electoral votes – enough to narrowly win the crowded election. This meant that 60% of the voters selected someone other than Lincoln. Accept any other valid responses.

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5 The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why temperance was a popular idea amongst Progressives. [10] (b) ‘New technology was the main cause of industrial growth in the late nineteenth century.’ How far do you agree? [20]

Mark scheme: 5(a) Explain why temperance was a popular idea amongst Progressives. 10 Indicative content  Various groups campaigned for temperance (and sometimes also prohibition) in this period. Groups such as the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League may be discussed by candidates.  Temperance groups were particularly strong in Southern states and rural areas in the North but by the end of the century the campaign was a national one.  Temperance became linked with the Progressive movement because it was linked with many of the concerns of Progressive campaigners. It was concerned with the moral fabric of society and the impact that alcohol had on families and vulnerable members of society. It was supported primarily by the middle classes and imposed on working class members of the community – particularly Irish and German immigrants in many towns and cities. It was also aimed at controlling powerful business interests (liquor distillers) and their connections with venal and corrupt politicians in city, state, and national governments. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) ‘New technology was the main cause of industrial growth in the late 20 nineteenth century.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Possible discussions around new technology: Electrical power, the internal combustion engine, the typewriter [1867], celluloid, an early form of plastic [1870] and the telephone [1876] are all technological innovations relevant to this period. Collectively they give rise to the period being described by some as ‘the second industrial revolution’. While many inventions were labour-saving devices, causing unemployment, others resulted in new products and services which were bought by the ‘early adopters’ of the time, thus creating new employment opportunities. Though the balance between the two is hard to assess, labour-saving innovations were often needed to overcome problems caused by labour shortages, especially in the northeast. Thus, overall, innovative technologies did help the continued growth of the industrial sector. Other possible areas of discussion: Availability of resources, especially financial – Capital came either from American banks or the City of London in sufficient quantities. Also relevant was the individualistic, entrepreneurial culture of the USA which ensured competition between the inventors of the new technologies, e.g., incandescent light bulbs and electricity supply. 5(b) The US system of patents also encouraged innovation because, unusually, it granted patents to improvements to inventions as well as the initial invention. This encouraged many to adapt new products to gain patent rights. High tariff walls of the era protected developing industries On the demand side, the growing population of the USA provided a large mass market which was not available to America’s industrial competitors. Thus, rapid industrialisation resulted from a series of factors, one of which was the new technologies of the time. Accept any other valid responses.

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6 The Great Crash, the Great Depression and the New Deal policies, 1920–41 (a) Explain why the 1920s saw a growth in consumerism. [10] (b) ‘The need for a Second New Deal showed that the First had been a failure.’ How far do you agree? [20] Section C: International option International history, 1870–1945

Mark scheme: 6(a) Explain why the 1920s saw a growth in consumerism. 10 Indicative content:  New products – the life of the American housewife was transformed by newly available products in the 1920s. Refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, and canned goods meant that chores were quicker. Many of these new products became cheaper as they were mass produced and so were available to many families.  Financing – Buying on credit and instalment plans meant that many of the new products were available to some families for the first time. Over half of the nation’s cars were bought on credit in the 1920s. Consumer debt more than doubled between 1920 and 1930.  Advertising – New style tabloid magazines such as the New York Daily News launched covering crime, sport and scandal. They also included lots of adverts for products for the home. Coca-Cola changed its advertising in the 1920s to show the drink as a ‘fun’ consumer product. In 1925 Bruce Barton’s book The Man Nobody Knows compared advertising and religion saying that Jesus Christ would have been an advertising man in modern day America. Accept any other valid responses. 6(b) ‘The need for a Second New Deal showed that the first had been a 20 failure.’ How far do you agree? Indicative Content: Possible areas of discussion around the First New Deal: The First New Deal of 1933–4 included federal action to relieve unemployment such as the Civilian Conservation Corps and Federal Emergency Relief Administration, and economic hardship, such as the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. It also stabilised the banking system and saw the USA leave the gold standard to allow for the inflation of the US economy. Much legislative and executive activity led to some relief and some recovery, if not a great deal of either. Overall though unemployment was not significantly reduced and demand in the economy had not recovered. These could be used to point to ‘failure’. Possible areas of discussion around the Second New Deal: The second New Deal of 1935–8 was more ambitious in its focus on reform as FDR articulated his vision of the future USA in 1934–5. The Social Security Act, introducing old age pensions, was the most radical social reform of the era while the Wagner Act established a new basis for labour relations – even if FDR was not keen on all aspects. The Wealth Tax Act was more symbolic than effective. The Emergency Relief Appropriations Act did much to provide effective work relief in the late 1930s. Some may argue that these ideas show that failure in the First New Deal had necessitated greater radicalism whilst others may suggest that it was a natural step after the ‘recovery’ phase of the First New Deal. Candidates will need to use some kind of metric to judge success or failure within the context of 1930s America. Accept any other valid responses.

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7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why Japan’s military strength developed rapidly in the later nineteenth century. [10] (b) ‘Imperial expansion created more cooperation than conflict between the Great Powers before 1914.’ How far do you agree? [20]

Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why Japan’s military strength developed rapidly in the later 10 nineteenth century. Indicative content Candidates are not expected to know specific detail of the Meiji restoration, just the changes that happened in the late 19th century that brought the Japanese military into the modern world including:  Restored the emperor and centralised government, uniting the country.  Led to desire to reduce influence of foreign powers by building up Japanese strength.  Development of industry and technology enabled modernisation of army.  Rapid development of fleet to counter overseas influences. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) ‘Imperial expansion created more cooperation than conflict between 20 the Great Powers before 1914.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content The response to this should demonstrate a balance between conflict and cooperation with regards to overseas expansion with a reasoned judgement to conclude. Conflict: Anglo-French competition produced tension between the two throughout most of the late nineteenth century especially over Egypt and their competing plans to link territories across or down the continent culminating in confrontation at Fashoda. The British also came into conflict with Germany over German support for the Boers especially the Kaisers Kruger telegram. German under Wilhelm II set out in search for a ‘place in the sun’ which led to tension with existing colonial powers. This led to 2 Moroccan crises which also raised tensions by crystallising the two sides in the European alliance system. Cooperation: Berlin Conference and Treaty 1884–5 settled a number of issues and set out clear parameters for future claims on territory on the African continent. Despite earlier conflict the British and French reached a settlement at Fashoda which paved the way for closer cooperation and the eventual Entente Cordiale. The powers were able to cooperate in China especially in response to the Boxer rebellion. The two confrontations in Morocco were both solved by negotiation. Candidates might also refer to the Anglo Japanese Treaty of 1902 Accept any other valid responses.

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8 The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s (a) Explain why the League of Nations had limited success in the 1920s. [10] (b) ‘The peace settlement of 1919–20 succeeded in creating stability in Eastern Europe.’ How far do you agree with this statement? [20]

Mark scheme: 8(a) Explain why the League of Nations had limited success in the 1920s. 10 Indicative content The answer to this question is expected to focus on the intrinsic structural weaknesses of the League:  It was initially seen as a ‘club’ for the victors – the defeated powers were only slowly admitted. (Austria was allowed to join in 1920, Hungary in 1922 and Germany in 1926, but Turkey and the USSR were not admitted until the 1930s).  It was an integral part of the Treaty of Versailles which increased its unpopularity with the defeated nations.  USA never joined. This denied the League access to American political, economic and military influence. The League came about through American diplomacy, so its absence raised questions about the League’s legitimacy.  It did not have any powers to enforce its decisions, e.g., Polish invasion of Lithuania. Mussolini/Corfu incident.  All decisions had to be unanimous. If this was not achieved, then nothing could be done. Accept any other valid responses. 8(b) ‘The peace settlement of 1919–20 succeeded in creating political and 20 economic stability in Eastern Europe.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Indicative content The weight of the argument will tend to be on the disagree side but there are positives to be identified in order to create a balanced judgement. Sufficient to reach the higher levels of the mark scheme: Disagree: Issue of minorities – new borders left most states with significant minorities (e.g., in Poland around one third were non-Polish including Germans, Ukrainians, Jews and Belarussians who were increasingly hostile to perceived discrimination against them). There was a lack of democratic tradition and experienced leadership which created instability, e.g., in Poland political instability led to coup by General Pilsudski in 1926. States had previously been part of larger Empires with integrated economic structures. New boundaries created artificial economic divisions, e.g., Austria was left with limited industrial resources that led to bankruptcy in 1922 when Austrian economy was placed under League supervision. The attempt to apply Wilson’s self-determination principle led to displaced persons, refugees and fresh conflicts, e.g., Poland/Russia, Greece/Bulgaria. Agree: With some minor adjustments the boundaries created were largely stable. Some countries established sound economies and successful governments, e.g., Czechoslovakia. It resolved many pre-war issues in the Balkans with the creation of Yugoslavia. Some minor issues were solved by negotiation, e.g., Silesian Coalfields dispute was dealt with by the LoN. In the 1920s the settlement of the Danzig issue seemed to be working; it was only in the thirties that it became an increasing problem. Accept any other valid responses.

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9 The League of Nations and international relations in the 1930s (a) Explain why the Great Depression encouraged the rise of political extremism in Europe. [10] (b) How successful was the Non-Intervention Agreement of August 1936 in preventing foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War? [20]

Mark scheme: 9(a) Explain why the Great Depression encouraged the rise of political 10 extremism in Europe. Indicative content Most candidates will probably refer to Nazi Germany, but other examples are acceptable.  It undermined the already fragile support for the recently established democratic governments, e.g., Weimar government which had been consistently unpopular because of its links to the Versailles settlement and earlier economic problems.  Prompted constitutional crises, e g. in Spain it led to polarisation of politics; in Germany President Hindenburg sought to reduce power of the Reichstag.  Economic hardship, e.g., in Germany by 1932 over a third of the workforce were unemployed and wages were almost 40% lower in real terms which led to growing electoral support for political extremes including the Nazis.  Unemployment increased support for the Communist Party which raised fears of industrialists and middle classes in a number of European countries. In Germany only Nazi party pledged to provide work for all Germans. Accept any other valid responses. 9(b) How successful was the Non-Intervention Agreement of August 1936 20 in preventing foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War? Indicative content There should be a balance of argument here between success and failure though the failures are more obvious and thus will tend to dominate most answers. Failure: It was undermined by German and Italian intervention on the side of the Nationalists and its effects; initial transport of Franco’s forces from Spanish Morocco; Condor Legion and its effects. (Italian aid a mixed blessing?). Also, there was Soviet aid to Republicans, but with limitations which led to conflict between the Communists and other Republican groups. The International Brigades circumvented the restrictions – still allowed individuals to volunteer. This was a major source of outside aid to the Republican government, but poorly organised. The non-intervention committee was unable to enforce its decisions. 9(b) Success: The USA supported non-intervention, preventing the sale of arms to the Republican government and the British consistently declined to help the Republic. French, on the whole, also maintained neutral stance though some French aid did reach Spain. Ultimately it did prevent the Spanish war developing into a full-scale European conflict – the main aim of the appeasement-orientated western powers. Accept any other valid responses.

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