Cambridge A Level History 9489 — 2021 May/June Paper 2 · Variant 3

1 France, 1774–1814 (a) Explain why Napoleon introduced the Civil Code. [10] (b) ‘Louis XVI brought about his own downfall.’ How far do you agree with this view? [20]

Mark scheme: Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why Napoleon introduced the Civil Code. 10 • There was a need because the old feudal system with its outdated laws and customs had been dealt a death-blow by the Revolution. There was a need to establish a uniform legal system which reflected the new situation in France. • Successive governments had tried to organise a national legal system. Napoleon aimed to succeed where they had failed. • He wanted to show that he was the heir of the Revolution by establishing the principle of the equality of all before the law. • Introducing the Code would allow Napoleon’s views to become dominant. The Code was influenced greatly by the authoritarian ideas of Roman Law, emphasising male authority and the father’s rights. This fitted well with Napoleon’s views on society and his belief in the inferior position of women. • The Civil Code would foster uniformity and centralisation in France, thereby consolidating his personal control. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) ‘Louis XVI brought about his own downfall’. How far do you agree with 20 this view? Arguments to support the view could be as follows. Louis XVI’s lack of a royal policy for the drawing up of the cahiers allowed expectations to be raised that the Estates General was going to bring about an overhaul of the political system, which was not what was planned when it was called by the government. This would mean the deputies would need careful management. However, Louis XVI showed little political nous. For example, in June in 1789 he tried to prevent the Third Estate from meeting as the National Assembly which led to the Tennis Court Oath’s declaration that deputies would not leave until a constitution was created. Louis XVI displayed an inconsistent attitude towards developments after 1789. For example, opposition to and then acceptance of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790). This sense of a lack of commitment to the political developments taking place in France seemed to be confirmed by his flight to Varennes in 1791. He began to be seen as a traitor to France, not as the king of France. The discovery in the Tuileries Palace of secret correspondence (1792) appeared to show Louis XVI was fostering counter- revolution. Thus, Robespierre was able to argue, during the debates on what should be done with the king, that the Revolution would never be stable whilst Louis was alive. On 21 January 1793 Louis XVI was executed. The view can be challenged. The series of poor harvests, beyond the king’s control, and rising prices created a febrile political atmosphere, and engendered a desire for change with the determination to use extreme methods, if needed, to achieve this. Enlightenment ideas and the success of the American Revolution had created the belief amongst many in France that their political system was outdated and had to change. The impact of war, such as social and economic disruption, from 1792 led this desire to take on an increasingly radical form. The Jacobins, who were the first party to call for the execution of the king, began to grow in political influence. Amidst the increasing loss of life due to war and civil disorder, plus seeming economic collapse, the removal of the king no longer appeared unthinkable. Accept any other valid responses.

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2 The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why railways increased industrialisation. [10] (b) How far was the political system changed by the Industrial Revolution in the period 1800–50? [20]

Mark scheme: 2(a) Explain why the railways increased industrialisation. 10 • Railways were vital for the speedy delivery, in bulk, of raw materials and finished products. This allowed demand to be met, reduced prices and created further demand. • Railways created the need for investment which stimulated the banking system. By 1850, 37% of total railway investment came from joint-stock banks. The increasingly sophisticated banking system offered opportunities for industry to access funds for investment in further mechanisation and technological change. • Employment was created by the railways, not just in their building but in their functioning (staff to run the trains and stations alongside workers in the workshops servicing the engines), creating further internal demand. • Food could be transported quickly to urban areas, allowing the population to continue to grow and stimulate demand for goods. The railways’ need for coal, steel and iron further stimulated these industries and led to technological innovation and organisational growth. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) How far was the political system changed by the Industrial Revolution 20 in the period 1800‒50? Arguments to show change could be as follows. The size and wealth of the middle classes increased due to the employment opportunities created by the Industrial Revolution (e.g. managers/ lawyers/bankers/ engineers/ factory owners). This led to a growing political influence, as seen, for example, in the 1832 Representation of the People Act. It increased the total male electorate by about 50% and 43 new boroughs, mostly northern industrial and commercial towns gained representation in Parliament. The 1835 Municipal Corporations Act effectively passed control of the industrial towns and cities to the middle classes. The Tory Party, the seeming bastion of the landed interest, was twice led by Sir Robert Peel (1834–1835 and 1841–1846) the son of a Lancashire textile manufacturer. The free trade debates from the late 1830s could be argued to show that Britain’s economic policies now would be determined by the concerns of industry and commerce and not those of the land. The generally appalling working and living conditions created as a result of the Industrial Revolution led to a growing politicisation (e.g. Chartism) of the lower classes who saw political representation as the means to improve these conditions. There was some acknowledgement that government did have a role in the oversight of living and working conditions, for example the Factory Acts, 1819 and 1833 and the Public Health Act, 1848. However, it could be argued there was no change. The aristocracy adapted to the Industrial Revolution by embracing it (the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal and the Duke of Hamilton’s coalfields), thereby maintaining their political status. There is an argument that the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) was not necessarily an example of the triumph of the middle classes but rather a move by Peel to preserve the aristocracy by abandoning these laws and thereby undermining calls for more radical political change if they had remained. The emphasis on property rights in the 1832 Reform Act tied the middle classes to the existing order, maintaining the status quo. Five out of six working men were still not enfranchised. Whilst Chartism made demands for political change none were enacted and after 1848 it ceased to be a national movement. Accept any other valid responses.

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3 The Russian Revolution, 1894–1921 (a) Explain why the Bolshevik government used terror. [10] (b) ‘Between 1906–14 the Tsarist regime had overcome the opposition to it.’ How far do you agree with this statement? [20]

Mark scheme: 3(a) Explain why the Bolshevik government used terror. 10 • The scale of the problems they faced after the October Revolution and the need to win a civil war led to the adoption of extreme methods. • As students of history they saw how the ‘Terror’ of the French Revolution was a product of similar circumstances and had preserved the Revolution. • They saw Marxism as a political creed which was superior to all other ideologies and so repression was an unavoidable aspect of its outlook. • Lenin did not know how to act in any other way as even prior to 1917 he believed coercion was necessary for transforming capitalism to socialism. The Cheka, chief instrument of the terror, was created in December 1917. • In the summer of 1918, there was an assassination attempt made on Lenin which failed and the Petrograd Cheka’s chairman was murdered. The result was that the greater part of Russia experienced the ‘Red Terror’. Accept any other valid responses. 3(b) ‘Between 1906‒14 the Tsarist regime had overcome the opposition to 20 it.’ How far do you agree with this statement? The aristocracy, an important political and social group that had the means to offer effective opposition, saw their status (land-holding/military command/public office) as dependent upon the regime. This made them its firm supporters. The Russian middle class was limited in size compared with Western Europe’s and so did not have the means to mount effective opposition. The creation of the Duma offered an outlet for their voice to be heard but the regime’s ability to dismiss it at will meant it could never offer serious opposition. The middle classes had found their association with the lower classes in the 1905 Revolution disconcerting, as the middle classes wanted to reform the regime not overthrow it. The consequences of Emancipation did create dissatisfaction amongst the peasantry, but they linked this to their landlords rather than the Tsar. The growing urban proletariat were susceptible to political agitators due to their appalling living and working conditions. However, such agitation was monitored carefully by the Tsar’s secret police, the Okhrana. Revolutionaries were either in prison or in exile. Lenin did not return to Russia until 1917. In addition, these revolutionaries were divided, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries. The view can, however, be challenged. Despite Stolypin’s policy of reform and repression peasant discontent remained and resulted in an almost constant breakdown in order in the countryside as land was seized. The preamble to the Fundamental Laws might claim that Russia was ‘one and indivisible’ but the resentment felt by Russia’s minorities remained. The Finnish provinces were in a virtual state of war up to 1914. The lack of any effort by the regime to address the working and living conditions of the workers led to a growth in unions. By 1914 the Bolsheviks had gained control of the biggest trade unions in Moscow and St. Petersburg. The killing of strikers in the Lena Goldfields intensified worker opposition and discontent. In 1912 Pravda was set up and 40 000 copies were bought daily by workers, and no doubt read by many more. Between 1912 and 1914 3 million workers were involved in 9000 strikes. In July 1914 there was a general strike in St. Petersburg with street fighting and barricades. All this suggests opposition in this period was not limited. Therefore, it is legitimate to ask if war had not broken out in the summer of 1914 bringing with it a patriotic fervour would the regime have faced an overwhelming opposition to its position? Accept any other valid responses.

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4 Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–77 (a) Explain why Grant was appointed commander of the Union forces in March 1864. [10] (b) ‘The Compromise of 1877 was agreed because Reconstruction had failed.’ How far do you agree with this view? [20]

Mark scheme: 4(a) Explain why Grant was appointed commander of the Union forces in 10 March 1864. • By early 1864, almost three years after the outbreak of the Civil War, the North had still failed to gain a clear military advantage over the South. In the previous summer, in the eastern theatre, Unionist forces had imposed a major defeat on the Confederates at Gettysburg. That merely repulsed a Southern advance into the North; the South itself remained intact. • In the western theatre, however, the North had gained a significant advance when it gained control of Vicksburg, the last remaining Confederate town on the Mississippi. Control of Vicksburg gave the Unionists control of the whole river and thus divided Confederate forces in the area. • The leader of the army which took Vicksburg was Ulysses Grant. The Unionist press publicised his successes. Congressional politicians wanted him appointed as lieutenant-general, a post last occupied by George Washington. • In the spring of 1864, at the start of the new campaigning season, Lincoln invited Grant to Washington and appointed him head of all Unionist forces. ‘Grant is the first general I have had’, Lincoln said. By that he meant he had found someone prepared to take military decisions without seeking his approval. The needs of war and the talents of Grant had caused Lincoln to make this appointment. Accept other valid responses. 4(b) ‘The Compromise of 1877 was agreed because Reconstruction had 20 failed.’ How far do you agree with this view? • The Compromise was an informal deal in February 1877 between the Republican Party and Southern Democrats. In return for the Republicans (a) aiding various infrastructure projects and (b) withdrawing federal troops from the South, those Democrats would accept the Republican, Rutherford Hayes, as President. • The Democratic candidate, Samuel Tilden, had not only clearly won the popular vote but more narrowly led the Electoral College vote. Twenty Electoral College votes were disputed, however, in Florida, Louisiana and South Carolina. An electoral commission was appointed to rule on these results. Divided on party lines, it awarded all twenty votes to Hayes who, as a result, won the Electoral College by a single vote. • Government was more focused on economic recovery following the crisis of 1873–5 Possible discussion points on the successes/failures of Reconstruction: • Although the reintegration of Southern states was done relatively quickly after the end of the Civil War and through their acceptance of the 13th and 14th amendments it was more difficult to make this actually count in the lives of African Americans – especially ex- slaves. Republican governments in Southern states needed military support to stay in power and many Southern leaders stayed in post. The vote in 1876 showed that politically not much had changed in the South. • Although the Freedmen’s Bureau did some good work for ex-slaves in the mid-1860s it lacked enough federal support to continue its work in the 1870s. Some ex-slaves participated in state politics and government in the late 1860s and early 1870s but this was in the face of massive opposition. It could be argued that the Compromise of 1877 was recognition that these policies had failed and that withdrawal was a better option. Even when the North was at its most interventionist, it never tried to change the system of land ownership. The plantations were never broken up; the whites still owned the land and the blacks did not. Accept other valid responses.

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5 The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why the growth of railroads was important to the economy in the late nineteenth century. [10] (b) To what extent was social improvement the aim of the Progressive Movement in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? [20]

Mark scheme: 5(a) Explain why the growth of railroads was important to the economy in 10 the late nineteenth century. Between the 1860s and 1890, five transcontinental railroads were built: two across the North – the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern – two in the South – Santa Fé and the Southern Pacific – and one in the centre/north – the Central Pacific/Union Pacific. This last railroad was the first to be completed, in 1869, and is the best known. Travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific thereafter took 8–10 days. They were significant to the USA because of: • Economic benefits, both direct and indirect. The direct benefits included increased demand for iron and steel. The indirect benefits included the creation of a genuinely national market. • Demand for labour, usually immigrant. People were needed both to build and staff the railroads and to farm the land which railroad companies had been given. Special immigrant trains were provided. North Dakota’s capital was renamed Bismarck. • Demand for investment funds in advance of any income from the railroads – and that was often never great – stimulated the US financial sector. • Encouraged urbanisation and growth of factory based industries. • Helped development of export markets. Accept other valid responses. 5(b) To what extent was social improvement the aim of the Progressive 20 Movement in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? Possible discussion points around social improvement: • Prohibition (18th Amendment) was the only Progressive era amendment to have a social/moral goal but it was part of a wider focus by Progressives on social improvement. Temperance had held a close association with Progressives for some years. • Governors such as Hiram Johnson in California were particularly interested in education and called for teacher pensions, free textbooks for public school children, the creation of a comprehensive curriculum, and mandatory kindergartens. • Focus on compulsory education - Enrolment for children (age 5 to 19) in school rose from 50.5 percent to 59.2 between 1900 and 1909. Enrolment in public secondary school went from 519 000 to 841 000. Possible discussion points around other aims of the Progressive movement: • Political reforms occurred mainly at state level, which meant not all states were included: initiatives and referendums and recall elections. • The constitutional reforms were four amendments, 16 to 19, passed in the space of just seven years: federal income tax – direct elections of the US Senate – prohibition of the sale of alcohol – votes for women. • Most reforms aimed to democratise the US system of government. A federal income tax also had a populist dimension in that it would enable the reduction of tariffs, which were a tax on ordinary people. Accept other valid responses.

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6 The Great Crash, the Great Depression and the New Deal policies, 1920–41 (a) Explain why the Great Depression lasted for so long. [10] (b) ‘Opposition from the Supreme Court was the most significant challenge faced by Roosevelt’s New Deal.’ How far do you agree? [20] Section C: International option International history, 1870–1945

Mark scheme: 6(a) Explain why the Great Depression lasted for so long. 10 Most historians would agree that the Depression last at least a decade although different dates and measures give different results. What’s clear is that many argue that the Depression was not really solved until the United States economy was put on a war footing at the beginning of the 1940s. It was rare for a slump to last this long; the so-called ‘forgotten depression’ of 1920–21 was over in a matter of months. Possible points include: • Failure of Hoover to act quickly enough – this question is not just about FDR policies; it is possible to argue that if Hoover had adopted different policies more quickly the Depression need not have been so deep or so long • According to left-wing economists, FDR followed the policies needed to restore economic growth and reduce unemployment; he stabilised the banking system, he took the dollar off the gold standard, and the federal government led investment in infrastructure such as rural electrification. Yet unemployment remained stubbornly high and growth limited. • In 1937–38, the so-called Roosevelt Recession occurred when FDR made attempts to balance the budget. Some more recent economic studies of the 1930s argue that the New Deal itself prolonged the depression. The argument is that government intervention, especially via the NIRA, allowed companies to charge higher prices and inflate wages. Consumers could not afford the higher prices and used their higher wages to help reduce debts while higher wages meant employers were unlikely to recruit more workers. • Candidates may also discuss the global context that FDR was operating in – recovering quickly in the midst of a worldwide economic depression and increasing political instability was perhaps too much to ask. Accept other valid responses. 6(b) ‘Opposition from the Supreme Court was the most significant 20 challenge faced by Roosevelt’s New Deal.’ How far do you agree? Key Opposition from the Supreme Court: • Schechter vs. United States, 1935, which ruled the National Industrial Recovery Act unconstitutional. US vs. Butler 1936, which undermined the Agricultural Adjustment Act and Morehead vs. New York, 1936, which ruled New York state’s minimum wage to be against the constitution. The first two in particular overturned key elements of the New Deal. • The Supreme Court was dominated by the ‘Four Horsemen’, conservative judges opposed to New Deal reforms which expanded the role of federal government on ideological grounds. Too often a fifth ‘swing’ judge supported their interpretation of the constitution. • However, after the court packing plan and the Second New Deal the Supreme Court was less obstructionist, sometimes even overturning judgements it had made a few months before, e.g. with regards to Social Security. Other points of discussion on New Deal opposition: • The two best known are figures are Huey Long and Charles Coughlin. Huey Long was a Democratic Senator, Charles Coughlin a Roman Catholic priest. • Both, after initially supporting the New Deal, turned against it for being too cautious and ineffective. Both used the new medium of the radio to gain support. Before his assassination, Huey Long became more left-wing. Father Coughlin’s views moved more towards the right. Both gained a great public response but it never turned into organised and effective electoral opposition to a President and a party which gained more support in 1936. • The most organised and most public right-wing opposition to the New Deal was the American Liberty League, set up in 1934. It combined conservatives Democrats and some leading industrialists and some popular support for private enterprise, which these groups felt was being eroded by the New Deal. Once FDR was re- elected in 1936, the American Liberty League lost support and soon disbanded. Accept other valid responses.

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7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why the Fashoda incident led to an improvement in Anglo‒French relations. [10] (b) ‘The interests of big business were the key to changes in US foreign policy in the late nineteenth century.’ How far do you agree? [20]

Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why the Fashoda incident led to an improvement in Anglo‒ 10 French relations. It may be useful to outline the conflicting ambitions that led to the Fashoda incident if this is clearly linked to the outcomes • Led to settlement of conflict over the Sudan (which at that time included South Sudan and Uganda) a key area of Central Africa in terms of the British ambitions for a ‘Cape to Cairo’ railway and French aims for an East-West axis for the control of trade with the interior of Africa • British agreed to support French ambitions in Morocco; led to Moroccan Crises • Led to recognition that Germany was a more significant challenge to both of them • Formation of the Entente Cordiale Accept other valid responses. 7(b) ‘The interests of big business were the key to changes in US foreign 20 policy in the late nineteenth century.’ How far do you agree? There will need to be an identification of specific way in which business influenced policy and a comparison with other factors that might have played a significant role. The US economy was growing rapidly in the late nineteenth century and businessmen were always looking for new markets. The closing of the frontier made entrepreneurs look increasingly to overseas suppliers and markets to continue expanding their industries. Also, a possible threat to business interests in Cuba made intervention in the Cuban Civil War increasingly likely as business pressure on the government to act, was increased. Additionally, economic crash of early 1890s led to businesses seeking greater diversity in their markets. The change was simply an extension of ‘Manifest Destiny’ – once expansion was completed to the Pacific then the next step was into the wider world. Expansionist presidents McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt actively promoted a more expansionist policy. Policy was still in line with the Monroe Doctrine – aimed to exclude/limits European expansion in the Caribbean and South America. There was growing concern about European imperialism, esp. Scramble for Africa. The popular press played its part in in activating public opinion in support of a more expansionist policy. Decline/ collapse of Spanish Empire – US did not want anyone else replacing them. Accept other valid responses.

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8 The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s (a) Explain why the French were dissatisfied with the Treaty of Versailles. [10] (b) How successful was the League of Nations in settling international territorial disputes in the 1920s? [20]

Mark scheme: 8(a) Explain why the French were dissatisfied with the Treaty of Versailles. 10 The key to this response is an understanding of French expectations at the Versailles negotiations which were based on revanche and reparation • The French wanted Germany permanently disabled, preferably broken up into smaller states; this did not happen • The French wanted key areas like the Rhineland and the Saar coalfields but though the Rhineland was demilitarised and the Saar was placed under French/British control for 15 years. this was less than expected • They did not gain full control of German colonies which were placed under League of Nations mandate • The reparation figure that was eventually agreed was less than the French wanted • Failure of USA to ratify ToV left France feeling abandoned by its allies. Accept other valid responses. 8(b) How successful was the League of Nations in settling international 20 disputes in the 1920s? The League of Nations (LoN) mediated in the Aaland islands dispute between Sweden and Finland 1920. Resolved the Upper Silesia coalfield dispute between Poland and Germany 1922. It settled the issue of Memel (1920). Settled the Greco-Bulgarian border dispute 1925.Introduced the Slavery Convention 1926. Continued to work throughout the 1920s for an international disarmament conference with a preparatory commission set up in 1925. However, the LoN could not prevent Polish seizure of Vilnius region from Lithuania 1921. Mussolini would not back down over the Corfu crisis (though not strictly a LoN issue the murdered Italians were working on behalf of the League). All attempts to agree measures for disarmament as proposed in the Versailles Settlement failed though the League did set up a preparatory commission in 1925 to move towards an international conference on this (which did meet in 1933 but was a failure). The ILO failed to get international agreement on 48 hour working week. Responses need not cover all of the above but will need to present a reasonable balance between examples of success and failure and better responses will need to make a reasoned judgement of the level of success. Accept other valid responses.

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9 China and Japan, 1912–45 (a) Explain why war broke out between Japan and China in 1937. [10] (b) How important was militarism in the failure of democracy in Japan in the 1930s? [20]

Mark scheme: 9(a) Explain why war broke out between Japan and China in 1937. 10 Relevant factors might include: • long term causes – Japanese economic and military expansion • Japan seizure of Manchuria • Japanese incursions into Northern China (inner Mongolia etc) • Chiang Kai-shek obsession with communists • Xian Bridge incident • Marco Polo Bridge clash • Attack on Japanese area of the Shanghai International Settlement Accept other valid responses. 9(b) How important was militarism in the failure of democracy in Japan in 20 the 1930s? There is a clear requirement here to look at the role of the military in the organisation and effectiveness of democratic government in Japan setting this alongside other factors that also served to undermine democracy. The activity of the Cherry Blossom Society and support for the ‘Showa Restoration’. There was popular support for seizure of Manchuria, an action taken by the army without reference to the government. Prime minister Inukai was assassinated by 11 young naval officers (League of Blood). There was significant public support for ‘secret’ military societies. Other factors that were significant include Japan’s lack of democratic tradition. The failure of government to stand up to perceived discriminatory attitudes of overseas powers especially USA also played a significant role if disillusionment with democratic government. The Great Depression had a big impact on Japanese economy – seen as another failure of democratic government. Traditional values and support for Emperor were strong and anti-democratic. The government faced (not unfounded) accusations of weakness and corruption. Accept other valid responses.

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