Cambridge A Level History 9489 — 2025 Oct/Nov Paper 2 · Variant 2

1 France, 1774–1814 (a) Explain why Napoleon’s regime can be seen as a dictatorship. [10] (b) To what extent had the Revolution changed France by the end of 1791? [20]

Mark scheme: Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why Napoleon’s regime can be seen as a dictatorship. 10 Indicative content • His method of gaining power, a military coup, showed strong autocratic tendencies. • He manipulated plebiscites to get the desired outcome. Commitment to revolutionary democracy was a sham. • There was extensive censorship and a network of government spies to ensure there was no questioning of Napoleon’s rule. • He made himself emperor and the imperial title hereditary. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) To what extent had the Revolution changed France by the end of 1791? 20 Indicative content Arguments to show that the Revolution had changed France to a great degree might be as follows. It was clear to many that by 1789, after the fall of the Bastille, a wider national uprising and the ‘Great Fear’, that fundamental change had to happen. The ‘Bonfire of Privilege’ when feudalism effectively went, happened as early as August 1789. So many of the institutions of the Ancien régime which had perpetrated inequality such as the Parlements, the Provincial Estates and taxes like the gabelle, had gone. June 1790 saw the abolition of all hereditary titles and the nobility. The previous feudal geography of France was gone, replaced by 83 departments. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, July 1790, was also a major step forward in linking the Church more closely to the State and dealing with abuses common under the Ancien Régime such as absenteeism and pluralism. For example, the number of bishoprics declined from 135 to 83 and all clerical posts except for parish priests and bishops ceased to exist. March 1791 saw the dissolution of the guilds and in September Louis XVI accepted the new constitution. It was the new phenomenon of public opinion that had forced change not the wishes of the king and his ministers. However, this view can be challenged. While on the one hand the Ancien Régime appeared to have gone, there was little sign of coherent rebuilding. There was little fiscal stability and no real answers to the issues of taxation which had played such a key part in bringing about the crisis of 1789. The new tax rolls were based, still, on those of the Ancien Régime so that great regional variations remained. A survey of land values was not begun until 1807 and not completed until the 1830s. The voting system with its concept of ‘active citizens’ still favoured the wealthy. Arguably, change could be seen as superficial and not likely to last while there was still a Bourbon on the throne, and there was still a throne. The royal family’s attempted escape from Paris in June 1791 seemed to confirm this for many. The petition to abolish the monarchy and the consequences of the Massacre on the Champs de Mars in July 1791 showed that revolutionary change was not over but moving to a more radical phase. Accept any other valid responses.

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2 The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why capitalism was important for the development of the Industrial Revolution in Britain. [10] (b) ‘Governments responded positively to demands for change caused by industrialisation.’ How far do you agree? [20]

Mark scheme: 2(a) Explain why capitalism was important for the development of the 10 Industrial Revolution in Britain. Indicative content • Encouraging and developing a sophisticated banking and investing system for raising capital for factory and transport developments (cornerstones of industrialisation). • Profits from agriculture and the slave trade were invested in industrial development. • Risk could be shared and profits reinvested, with dividends generating wealth for future investment • The development of railways was not possible without capitalism. On average one mile of railway cost £40000, governments did not have the funds to meet this demand. • created jobs in factories encouraging urbanisation Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘Governments responded positively to demands for change caused by 20 industrialisation.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content Arguments to support this view could be as follows. The Combination Acts were repealed in 1824 because there was a view that such acts only encouraged workers to combine in unions. In addition, it was felt, by more liberal-minded politicians that unions were a necessary part of a free society. Governments were more willing to concede to demands for reform from the middle classes than the lower classes because in so doing the existing order was preserved. This can be seen in the 1832 Reform Act which did grant more middle-class parliamentary representation, but through its emphasis on property rights detached the middle classes from the lower classes. The repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) can be seen, also, in this light. By repealing the laws, it ended potentially more radical demand for change and so preserved the status of the aristocracy. Demands for change sometimes were acceded to by government because there was a growing acceptance that in the circumstances created by industrialisation government should take a more active role (e.g., Public Health Act 1848). Arguments to challenge the view might consider how Governments ignored the calls for social assistance from mill workers to help with economic hardships caused by increased mechanisation but sent troops to deal with the following actions of the Luddites. In 1825, following the outbreak of a series of strikes, a Combination Act was introduced which imposed limits on workers’ right to strike. In March 1834, the Tolpuddle Martyrs were transported for making an illegal oath when joining a trade union. This was prompted by the government’s alarm at the creation of the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union (GNCTU). The demands of the Chartists were opposed in Parliament, with heavy votes against the two petitions presented in 1839 and 1842. In 1848, Parliament simply refused to receive a third Chartist petition. Also, troops and the newly developing police forces were employed to intimidate the Chartists. Accept any other valid responses.

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3 The Russian Revolution, 1894–1921 (a) Explain why the Bolsheviks were successful in October 1917. [10] (b) How important was the war with Japan in the development of the Revolution of 1905? [20]

Mark scheme: 3(a) Explain why the Bolsheviks were successful in October 1917. 10 Indicative content • Impact of the war was divisive and military support drained away from the Provisional Government (PG) as it had from the Tsar. • Failings of the PG – continuation of the war, Kornilov Affair and arming of the Soviets. • Trotsky proved essential in the preparation and planning of the seizure of power in October 1917. • Lenin was a key factor – he had built up the party and controlled it fully. He was prepared to think radically (no cooperation with the PG) and his slogan of ‘Peace, Bread and Land’ captured the essentials of what people were seeking. Accept any other valid responses. 3(b) How important was the war with Japan in the development of the 20 Revolution of 1905? Indicative content Arguments to support the view that the war with Japan was central to the development of the 1905 Revolution could take the following form. The numerous humiliations of the war did the regime no good. Nicholas II took the decision to go to war against Japan. The fact that the Tsar was an autocrat and responsible for the actions of his government raised questions about the regime’s fitness to rule. This was compounded by the fact Russian had suffered military defeat at the hands of an Asiatic power. In the racist mindset of the time this was a humiliation that needed those responsible to be punished. Discontent developed, also, because resources diverted to the war lessened the, already, limited supply of grain and fuel. The view can be challenged. The extent to which there was full awareness within Russia of the extent of the disasters is debateable. With a restricted press and mass illiteracy, not much information spread beyond the centres. The Tsar himself bears responsibility for the Revolution of 1905 as he refused to consider any major reform or provide the necessary support to quality ministers such as Witte. He showed a real lack of awareness of the problems facing Russia and its peoples. He supported the pogroms and aggressive Russian nationalism. In addition, with the growth of industry and factories and low wages and poor working conditions, there was scope for the growth of radicalism. The work of Plevhe and the Interior Ministry alienated many, and they came to see the state as immovable and oppressive. With no political parties in the conventional sense, no Trade Unions allowed, there was simply no outlet for any dissent, especially for the growing working class. The legacy of serfdom still dominated the countryside with its attended debts and problems. Middle class anger was fuelled by a rigid caste system which created a massive ‘glass ceiling’ for the able. Accept any other valid responses.

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4 Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–77 (a) Explain why there was opposition to Johnson’s plans for Reconstruction. [10] (b) ‘Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation for military reasons.’ How far do you agree? [20]

Mark scheme: 4(a) Explain why there was opposition to Johnson’s plans for 10 Reconstruction. Indicative content: • Congress was strongly influenced by causes and results of secession, that is, the impact of war etc. so wanted to punish the South. Johnson’s plans were, in their view, too soft on southern combatants, with pardons for most and confiscated land taken from its new ex-slave owners and returned to the former owners. • In the eyes of Congress this was harsh on ex-slaves who had been granted the confiscated land. • Johnson’s policy was, in the opinion of Congress, too focused on preservation and rebuilding of the union and on preserving states’ rights rather than on punishment of South or bringing south into line on the rights of ex-slaves (which had increasingly been the goal of the war). States’ rights had been the issue that started the war, so Johnson’s support for it was unpopular. • In April 1865 Johnson issues the Amnesty Proclamation granting pardons to many southern leaders- this was strongly opposed by the radical republicans Accept any other valid responses. 4(b) ‘Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation for military reasons.’ 20 How far do you agree? Indicative content In support of the statement consideration might be given to how the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation of 1862 was a response to losses at the Battle of Antietam. Lincoln wanted to end the war as soon as possible. The preliminary Emancipation Proclamation contained the threat of emancipation in rebellious states to encourage them to rejoin the Union. The priority can be seen as ending the fighting rather than freeing slaves, since had rebellious states rejoined the Union, they would have been allowed to maintain slavery. Fleeing slaves were also already enlisting in the Union Army before the Emancipation Proclamation was issued. The extra manpower in the army was of benefit to the Union, and the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 could be seen as invitation to freed slaves to join the Union army – of which 180 000 eventually did so. The Emancipation Proclamation also meant that European nations would not ally with the Confederacy as this would have been seen as supporting slavery, an institution they opposed and had abolished. This had some naval if not military implications. On the other hand, Lincoln was increasingly of the opinion that slavery had to be abolished. The Emancipation Proclamation was a first step in that it freed slaves in the rebellious states. This paved the way for the Thirteenth Amendment. The proclamation gave renewed impetus to the Union war effort by confirming that it was a war for freedom and that this freedom depended on Union victory. Accept any other valid responses.

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5 The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s–1920 (a) Explain why the movement for female emancipation remained split throughout the late nineteenth century. [10] (b) How far do you agree that Progressive reforms were more successful at state than at federal level? [20]

Mark scheme: 5(a) Explain why the movement for female emancipation remained split 10 throughout the late nineteenth century. Indicative content • The initial split had come in 1869 as the movement was divided in its attitude to the Fifteenth Amendment. The issue of relative worthiness to vote was also raised in relation to foreign-born men. • Throughout the period there was disagreement about the main focus of the movement – should it be the vote or were other socio-economic issues (e.g. Temperance, Child Labour) with which it should be linked? In other words, should women’s organisations focus on a single issue? • There was also disagreement about the methods to be used: persuasion vs. actions (including violent actions). • Religions division – more fundamentalist religious groups were often strongly opposed to female emancipation • There were differences between State and Federal responses to the issue Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) How far do you agree that Progressive reforms were more successful at 20 state than at federal level? Indicative content State reform began in Illinois and Michigan then taken up by other states. especially Wisconsin under La Follette. The impulse towards social justice began at state level. For example, at state level, laws were introduced to regulate banks and businesses, limit the working hours of women and children, and protect workers from accidents at work. Arguably these reforms had a greater impact on the lives of Americans than federal government actions. Federal government passed the Seventeenth and Nineteenth Amendments making the US a more democratic country. Roosevelt intervened on behalf of workers, for example, miners. There were moves to break trusts and limit monopolies. Federal government took the initiative regarding working conditions for federal employees. Federal government was limited by the constitution regarding states’ rights in many areas. This limited the possibility for reform at federal level. In addition, each Progressive President had different views about the role of federal government, and much legislation was blocked by conservatives in Congress. Accept any other valid responses.

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6 The Great Crash, the Great Depression and the New Deal policies, 1920–41 (a) Explain why people bought goods on hire purchase in the 1920s. [10] (b) How far do you agree that the key to Roosevelt’s political success was his ability to communicate effectively with the American people? [20] Section C: International option International history, 1870–1945

Mark scheme: 6(a) Explain why people bought goods on hire purchase in the 1920s. 10 Indicative content • In the 1920s there were many new consumer goods available for consumers. These included electrical appliances for the home – radios, refrigerators as well as cars. • These products were extensively advertised so that many aspired to own these items. • Optimism of both lenders and borrowers about the health of the economy encouraged the signing of hire purchase agreements on the assumption that high employment levels and high wages would be maintained. • Loans were made with limited assessment of borrowers’ capacity to re- pay/collateral and were easily available Accept any other valid responses. 6(b) How far do you agree that the key to Roosevelt’s political success was 20 his ability to communicate effectively with the American people? Indicative content Roosevelt was the first American politician to make effective use of his own communication skills using the new technology of radio in his fire-side chats. He also travelled extensively around the country, making speeches, and listening to people. In doing so, he presented himself as champion of the American people, showing empathy with their problems. He showed himself to be the saviour of the small man – of small farmers, and the working class in cities. This could be the reason for his electoral successes, particularly because of Hoover’s perceived indifference to the plight of the poor in 1932. To some extent, however, his ability to present himself as such depended on the promises, introduction, and successes of New Deal measures. Although the promises made in the 1932 campaign were vague, and there were many criticisms of the New Deal, he presented them effectively as solutions to the problems created by the depression. His record in politics before he stood for the presidency was also strong. For example, as Governor of New York as he had introduced a series of measures to mitigate the effects of the depression. He was also an astute political strategist. He formed the New Deal coalition. He gave power to those excluded by and alienated from the old establishment, including Jews and Irish Catholics. This meant that, while retaining the support of many Democrats, including the liberal left, he broadened his support base. Those who opposed him – for example big business – did not have significant support at the ballot box. He knew when to compromise. For example, he learned from the experience of Supreme Court opposition and his initial unpopular response. Accept any other valid responses.

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7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why the Second Boer War led to heavy criticism of Britain. [10] (b) To what extent did the Anglo-Japanese Alliance contribute to the Japanese victory over Russia in 1905? [20]

Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why the Second Boer War led to heavy criticism of Britain. 10 Indicative content • Germany in particular, and other European nations in general, saw this as an attempt by the British to bully a small independent nation for their own gain. • It also breached the agreement on the right to claim territory that was part of the Treaty signed at the end of the Berlin Conference in 1885. • The ‘scorched earth’ tactics – destroying farms crops and livestock so that the guerrilla fighters would not be able to make use of local supplies, were heavily criticised. • To undermine the Boers morale the British also set up ‘concentration camps’ where they imprisoned the wives and children of Boer fighters. These were originally meant to be refugee centres for those displaced by the fighting, but they soon became effectively prisons in which the poor hygiene and lack of food led to the death of around 30,000 civilians as a result of the war. This caused even greater international condemnation of the British Note: this question is about international responses and not about internal criticism of the government. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent did the Anglo-Japanese Alliance contribute to the 20 Japanese victory over Russia in 1905? Indicative content In support of the statement responses may consider how, f aced with similar concerns about Russian expansion in the Far East, negotiations began in 1901 to agree on a common policy, and this was confirmed in the Anglo- Japanese Alliance signed in 1902. In it the two agreed to remain neutral if either country was involved in a war but to come to each other’s aid if faced with a war against two or more opponents. This gave Japan the confidence to seek settlement of outstanding issues over their respective rights in Chinese territory in Manchuria and Korea, but the Russian refused to negotiate and instead invaded Korea. After the initial stunning success of the Japanese attack on Port Arthur the Russians were left with only their Baltic fleet to continue the war but made the mistake of accidentally firing on the British North Sea fishing fleet enroute. As a result of this and their alliance with the Japanese the British refused Russia access to the Suez Canal so they were forced to take the long route round South Africa. By the time they reached Japan the Japanese had had time to consolidate the position and prepare, and the exhausted Russian Fleet stood little chance against them in the Battle of the Tsushima Straits. Consideration of other factors might include Russian overconfidence. Russia was convinced that against a minor regional power they would have no trouble in winning a quick victory. They also failed to account for the fact that Japan had been taking time to build up modern and efficient navy which was more than a match for the slow and outdated Russian fleets. The Russians were unprepared for the surprise Japanese attack on Port Arthur. The warships in port at the time had no opportunity to respond. Once the war had started the Russians were hampered by the lack of reinforcements and long slow lines of communication. The Japanese, who had short lines of communication and supply, overran their position in Manchuria and after a 3- month siege forced the surrender of the final Russian forces in Mukden. The Russians were hampered from taking further action by the growing unrest leading to the 1905 Revolution. They were left with no choice but to seek a settlement with Japan. Accept any other valid responses.

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8 The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s (a) Explain why the work of the Refugee Commission of the League of Nations was particularly important in the period to 1923. [10] (b) ‘The Locarno Treaties established a trusting and friendly relationship between Germany and other European nations.’ How far do you agree? [20]

Mark scheme: 8(a) Explain why the work of the Refugee Commission of the League of 10 Nations was particularly important in the period to 1923. Indicative content Following the end of the war there was considerable disruption to the population, both civilian and military, across many European borders. • The redrawing of national boundaries and creation of a series of successor states left many people in countries where they did not want to be so after the settlement thousands of refugees were on the move and in need of help. • The end of the war left over half a million prisoners of war stranded in Russia and the commission, under the leadership of Fridtjof Nansen, organised their repatriation and resettlement • In 1922 the Commission introduced the Nansen passport, the first internationally recognised passport for stateless refugees, to help ease the continuing refugee crisis. • In 1923 the outbreak of violence in Turkey created almost one and a half million refugees that the commission helped to rehouse and settle in surrounding regions. Accept any other valid responses 8(b) ‘The Locarno Treaties established a trusting and friendly relationship 20 between Germany and other European nations.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content The treaty began a period of positive relations between France and Germany. It settled the borders between Germany and France and Belgium. The Germans accepted the borders established after Versailles as the permanent boundaries with their western neighbours which involved accepting the permanent loss of Alsace and Lorraine as well as Malmedy and Eupen. Britain and Italy provided a Treaty of Mutual Guarantee of support if there was ever any attempt to change these borders. This marked a growing willingness by Mussolini to play a positive role in the in improving international relations. The treaties gave the French a greater degree of security which they had been looking for ever since the end of the war. It marked a move towards fully re-integrating Germany into the international community and as a result Germany was admitted to membership of the League of Nations. Stresemann and Briand were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts in bringing about the settlement. However, it can be argued that the meeting was just culmination of changes taking place over recent years. Following the Ruhr Crisis, the Dawes Plan eased the reparations burden on Germany, and a measure of calm and co- operation was restored to European relations. This calmness was enhanced by the positive relationship between Stresemann and Briand who actively promoted the meeting at Locarno. The Locarno Treaty also did not resolve any issues regarding Germany’s eastern borders and Poland was unhappy with the outcome of the conference. The Polish corridor and the status of Danzig remained as unresolved issues as far as Germany was concerned. The League of Nations was struggling to address the disarmament issue, though planning for a conference continued. Germany was still the only major power to have disarmed and that had been forced by the treaty of Versailles so was a continuing source of resentment. The Kellogg Briand Pact sounded promising but had no ‘teeth’. The Wall Street Crash also threw Europe into economic chaos and destroyed ‘the Spirit of Locarno’. Accept any other valid responses

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9 China and Japan, 1912–45 (a) Explain why the appointment of General Tojo as Japanese Prime Minister was significant in the Japanese decision to go to war in 1941. [10] (b) How important was the support of the USSR in the success of the Northern Expedition? [20]

Mark scheme: 9(a) Explain why the appointment of General Tojo as Japanese Prime 10 Minister was significant in the Japanese decision to go to war in 1941. Indicative content When the war in Europe broke out in 1939 it appeared to provide an opportunity for the Japanese to take advantage of the European imperial powers distraction to continue their expansionist plans. However, initially moderate elements were able to pursue a more cautious policy. • With the invasion of the USSR the way was clear for the expansionists to take control of policy and Tojo was the leading advocate of this policy. • He renewed the advance of Japanese forces into French Indochina and when US expressed concern he claimed it was no threat to them • However, in July 1941 the US ended its oil exports to Japan in hope of curbing Japan’s ambitions since they depended on oil imports. • Tojo pursued negotiations with US, claiming to want a peaceful settlement whilst continuing build-up of military forces. • On December 7th launched attack on Pearl Harbor and the following day launched multiple attacks across south-east Asia. Accept any other valid responses. 9(b) How important was the support of the USSR in the success of the 20 Northern Expedition? Indicative content Consideration pf Soviet support might consider how planning for the expedition began in 1922 under the Leadership of Sun Yat-sen. Sun had a close relationship with the Chinese communists and had effectively integrated them into the KMT. So cooperation with the Communist government of the USSR seemed like a reasonable choice. They provided advisors who helped to develop the KMT’s political and military strength. In 1923 Sun sent Chiang Kai-shek, his military commander, to Moscow to study Soviet military and political organisation. The Russian leadership believed that helping China was an important way of ending their international isolation and Chiang, even though he did not believe communism was the way forward for China, did recognise the value of their military advice and assistance. Some officers of the growing NRA were sent for additional training to Moscow having passed through the Whampoa Academy. The USSR also helped supply the NRA with weapons and equipment. As a result of Soviet aid, the NRA was a better organised and equipped organisation with well trained- officers and well-disciplined troops. Other factors Consideration of other factors might include how the warlord armies were disorganised and poorly equipped by comparison to the NRA, sufficient to control local peasant populations but a poor match for a well organised trained and equipped force. They relied on mercenaries whose pay depended on the exploitation of the local populations. Some warlords even joined the KMT in the hope of retaining some control over their local areas. Many Chinese were tired and resentful of the warlord armies and their bullying tactics and thus welcomed the NRA an as a liberating force. The Three Principles of Sun Yat-sen appealed to the more educated population whilst the simpler teachings of the Chinese communists attracted many peasants to supporting the NRA. The communists had been focusing on building support amongst the peasant population as well as the workers in the big towns and cities and had a strong base of support. As the Northern Expedition advanced, therefore, its forces grew rapidly from 100 000 in July 2026 to over 250 000 by the end of the year. Accept any other valid responses.

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