Why was imperialism a significant force in Africa from 1870? — Paper 2 · A Level History 9489

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why Africa was the focus of an international conference in Berlin in 1884. [10] (b) ‘The signing of a Treaty of Alliance with Britain in 1902 marked Japan’s emergence as a significant power.’ How far do you agree? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why Africa was the focus of an international conference in 10 Berlin in 1884. In 1880 only around 20% of the African continent was colonised by European Powers but: • The African continent was rich in resources that were in demand in by European industrialists. • Many countries saw Africa as an opportunity to increase their power and prestige. • Bismarck, who organised the conference was under pressure to expand Germany’s spheres of influence. • To avoid disrupting the stability in Europe the conference was called to divide up Africa, in a purely arbitrary way, into areas for development by the different colonial powers. Accept other valid responses. 7(b) The signing of a Treaty of Alliance with Britain in 1902 marked Japan’s 20 emergence as a significant world power.’ How far do you agree? To respond fully to his question answers will need to look not only at event leading to the Treaty but at what happened afterwards. Following the Meiji Restoration, 1868, Japan transformed itself into a modernised industrial country following western examples. Japan built itself a modern military force with a strong well-equipped navy. The first Sino- Japanese war saw Japanese expansion gaining concessions in Korea and in China itself and confirmed Japan as the major power of East Asia. The Treaty was the first major international treaty signed with a western power and offered mutual support for their interests in China and Korea. Treaty with Britain was renewed in 1905 and 1911 following significant further successes for Japan Britain was increasingly concerned about its isolation especially in the wake of the Boer War and was looking for support in the Far East to ease the burden on maintaining its empire. Though Japan went on to beat Russia in1905, it was due more to Russian weaknesses than to Japan being a world power. Even as late is Versailles in 1918 Japan was not really treated as an equal by the western powers. Accept other valid responses.

This question in 9489/22 Feb/March 2021

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why Germany was increasingly interested in having an overseas empire after 1880. [10] (b) To what extent had Japan become a world power by the end of the First World War? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why Germany was increasingly interested in having an overseas 10 empire after 1880. Whilst the accession of Wilhelm Ⅱ in 1888 will probably be the most obvious factor other key points might include: • The general rise of imperialistic rivalry in Europe culminating in the Berlin Conference 1884–1885. • Pressure from German businesses for more overseas trade opportunities that shifted Bismarck’s stance even before 1888. • Bismarck’s supporters, the National Liberals, favoured colonial acquisitions. Bismarck saw getting colonies as an electoral advantage for the upcoming 1884 election. • The dismissal of Bismarck in 1890. He saw Germany’s role as that of a continental, not colonial, power. • The development of Weltpolitik and the idea of ‘a place in the sun’. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent had Japan become a world power by the end of the First 20 World War? There should be a combination of long, and shorter, term factors that might be included. Support The Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 represents the first recognition of Japan as a possible equal to European powers. The Japanese defeat of Russia 1904–1905 was the first defeat of a major European power by a non- European nation. The rapid Japanese modernisation of armed forces, especially naval, made Japan a significant power. From 1914, the Japanese were members of the Grand Alliance and played an important role in securing the sea lanes in the West Pacific and Indian Oceans against the German Imperial Navy. A Japanese delegation was at the Versailles conference where they made territorial gains including German island colonies in the Pacific. Challenge Japan was a world power by the end of the First World War the following could be considered. The defeat of Russia (1905) was at a low point in Russian capability – Russian forces out of date and badly organised – logistical difficulties for Russia in Far East. Japan was not included in major decisions by ‘Big Three’ at Versailles. Japan’s Racial Equality Proposal for the Versailles treaty, which affirmed the equality of all nations regardless of race and was designed to have Japanese immigrants to USA treated the same as white Europeans, came to nothing due to Wilson’s ‘unanimity ruling’, something which had not been insisted upon until now. Japan was still basically not treated on an equal basis by the other powers. A top-level answer will need to consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of both alternatives and make a reasoned judgement about which is better. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/21 May/June 2021

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why US foreign policy changed during the presidency of McKinley. [10] (b) To what extent was British imperial policy up to 1902 based on fear of other European powers? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why US foreign policy changed during the presidency of 10 McKinley. Answers may focus on immediate and/or longer-term shifts that resulted. • The growing popularity of the belief amongst militant Protestants that God had favoured the USA in order to serve the divinely ordained purpose of ‘civilising’ the peoples of the Caribbean, Central America and Asia. Kipling’s the ‘White Man’s Burden’ (1899) was addressed directly to America to undertake the colonisation and annexation of the Philippines. • The economic depression of 1893 fostered the belief that the economic dislocation and social unrest could only be cured by the acquisition of foreign territories. • The outbreak of rebellion (1896) in Cuba against Spanish control seemed to provide an opportunity to enact this divine plan and acquire foreign territories. • The ‘USS Maine’ explosion provided the means whereby public opinion (‘remember the Maine, to hell with Spain’) pushed USA into war with Spain in 1898. • Acquisition of former Spanish colonies Puerto Rico, Guam and Philippines went against the anti-imperialist rhetoric which had been a by- word of American foreign policy since the late eighteenth century. • Assassination – succeeded by Theodore Roosevelt who was even more imperialistically minded. This meant the developments seen under McKinley continued. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent was British imperial policy up to 1902 based on fear of 20 other European powers? Responses will need to demonstrate an understanding of a range of factors influencing British policy, some based on the issue of relations with other European states but others related to more general reasons for imperialistic expansion. Issues relating to European powers might include conflict with France leading up to the Fashoda incident (1898), as well as concerns about control of the Suez Canal zone and other powers controlling the route to India, may have prompted actions in taking control of Egypt. There were also worries over rival naval powers (France and Russia), hence the adoption of the two-power standard (1889) and the naval challenge of Germany after 1898. Kaiser Wilhelm II’s Kruger telegram of 1896 raised fears of German support for the Boers in South Africa. There was also concern about Russian expansionism in the Far East which led to the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902. There were economic factors, such as pressure of industrialists for new resources/markets, for example, scramble for Africa. Also, the ambitions of key individuals, for example, Cecil Rhodes and his ‘Cape to Cairo’ plan. The Boer issue in South Africa played a significant role, leading to two wars (1880–81 and 1899–1902). There were also problems of maintaining control of local populations, for example, India. Basic issues of maintaining a global empire arose as well; naval resources, while plentiful, were spread thinly across the globe. Finally, some people were concerned about the strategic significance of certain areas, such as the Cape and the Canal. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/21 Oct/Nov 2021

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why the USA needed to expand its naval resources after the Spanish‒American War. [10] (b) To what extent were economic motives the reason for imperial expansion amongst the major European nations in the late nineteenth century? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why the USA needed to expand its naval resources after the 10 Spanish‒American War. Responses should consider and evaluate a range of factors: • Acquisition of remnants of Spanish Empire in 1899. • New mood of imperialism in US public and press. • Ambitions of presidents. • Wanted to establish US as one of the Great Powers with a navy of comparable strength to the European nations and Japan. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent were economic motives the reason for imperial 20 expansion amongst the major European nations in the late nineteenth century? There are a number of factors to be considered and with some obvious overlap between economic and other factors it should be possible for the better candidates to draw valid conclusions on relative importance of economic vs. other motives. Economic motives: Responses should consider the effects of industrial revolution, search for new markets and raw materials. Also important is control of trade routes; Suez Canal, South Africa etc. European powers developed the Open Door policy in China. Imperialist ambitions were fuelled by newly discovered resources such as diamonds in Southern Africa – Boer Wars. Other motives: An important consideration was avoiding war in Europe. The search for international prestige also played a part. Each European Power wanting to have more colonies and a bigger empire than its rival powers. Improved technology added impetus to expansion with better weapons and new medicines. Some Europeans were also driven by religious/cultural imperative. Finally, there were specific national factors to be considered, e.g., German Weltpolitik Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/23 Oct/Nov 2021

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why people in Britain supported overseas expansion in the late nineteenth century. [10] (b) ‘The United States went to war with Spain in 1898 in support of the independence movement in Cuba.’ How far do you agree with this statement? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why people in Britain supported overseas expansion in the late 10 nineteenth century. Indicative content There were a variety of reasons, economic, social, religious and nationalistic, that might be identified. These include: • Industrialists and traders were interested in new resources and expanding markets. • Belief in spreading European ‘civilisation’. • To spread the Christian religion. • To maintain leading position in the world. • Rise of newspapers that supported overseas ventures/national pride – jingoism. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) ‘The United States went to war with Spain in 1898 in support of the 20 independence movement in Cuba.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Indicative content Whilst there had been a civil war in Cuba for several years with some support for the independence movement from the US there were also a lot of ulterior motives. Agree Civil war began in 1895 and Spain adopted extreme measures to try and crush the rebellion. McKinley described the tactics used as ‘not civil war but extermination’. Public sympathy was raised by the ‘yellow press’ which condemned Spain and agitated public opinion with dramatic reporting of Spanish atrocities. This led to growing public pressure for intervention to help the Cubans gain their independence in line with the founding principles of the US. Disagree There were other considerations in the US decision to go to war. It supported the underlying principles of the Monroe Doctrine. US government did not want war and tried to reach a negotiated settlement between the two sides. But when, despite repeated promises, Spain failed to make any progress towards reform, US patience ran out. Some US industrialists saw a growing role for US business in the Caribbean now that the occupation of territory in the West had been completed (closing of the Frontier). The trigger was the sinking of the US battleship Maine in Havana harbour which the US government blamed on the Spanish authorities and used as a ‘casus bellum’ though the cause of the incident has never been conclusively demonstrated. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/22 Feb/March 2022

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why the sinking of the Lusitania led to US involvement in the First World War. [10] (b) How successful was the Berlin Conference of 1884–85 in resolving conflicts over imperial expansion in Africa? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why the sinking of the Lusitania led to US involvement in the 10 First World War. Indicative content Answers will need to set the sinking in the wider context of US response the war in Europe, establishing the sinking as a short-term cause, possibly ‘trigger’, to US declaration of war by crystallising public opinion against Germany. At the start of the war Wilson was strongly opposed to US involvement and was supported by the majority of US public opinion but:  Even before the war US opinion towards Germany was generally more negative than towards other European countries.  US banks made huge loans to Britain and France allowing them to buy war materials from US producers.  In April 1915 Germany warned against US citizens boarding British ships suspected of carrying these good to Britain and on May 7th sank the Lusitania with the loss of 128 US lives – this outraged public opinion but not enough to lead to war. However, it marked a turning point and Wilson only narrowly won the 1916 election.  It took all-out submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Telegram to finally push US into war. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) How successful was the Berlin Conference of 1884-85 in resolving 20 conflicts over imperial expansion in Africa? Indicative content Effective responses will probably set consideration of the achievements of the Berlin conference against the continuing appearance of crises and conflicts over the European Powers’ involvement in African colonial expansion. The idea of success revolves around the outcome of the conference. Called predominately to discuss the issue of access to the Congo basin it also created a general framework for expansion in Africa as well as settling a number of individual conflicts. It confirmed Belgian ownership of the Congo but allowed freedom of navigation along the Congo river for other nations. It defined specific areas for each country’s further expansion and established the ‘principle of effectivity’ which meant that countries could not just claim lands that thy might have explored, they had to demonstrate that they had effectively occupied those areas. In exploring the limitations of the treaty candidates are likely to cover a range of conflicts that arose after 1885 despite the Treaty. Anglo French conflict over sub-Saharan Africa was not finally resolved until after the Fashoda incident in 1898. The Boer Wars was effectively a war between rival groups of European settlers and also raised Anglo German tensions. The two Moroccan crises raised tensions between rival powers in Europe which were not fully resolved despite the negotiations that ended them and may eventually have contributed to the outbreak of the First World War. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/23 May/June 2022

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why US foreign policy became more imperialistic after 1898. [10] (b) To what extent was the Boxer Rebellion a response to European imperialism in the late nineteenth century? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why US foreign policy became more imperialistic after 1898. 10 Indicative content A range of factors made the US more expansive after 1898. Foremost amongst these was necessity.  The Spanish–American War and US victory gave the US an instant empire with the acquisition of former Spanish territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific.  Philippines civil war – the Filipino population objected to being handed over to a different power and demanded independence. The US sent in its army to crush the opposition.  The closing of the frontier and the Panic of 1893 had alerted businessmen to the need to expand their trading options beyond the internal market of the US.  The Boxer Rising – because of growing interest in the Chinese Market the US joined the western powers in suppressing the Rising and reimposing the Open Door Policy.  Both McKinley and his successor Roosevelt were supporters of a more expansionist foreign policy.  Roosevelt acquired the rights to the building of the Panama Canal from the French. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent was the Boxer Rebellion a response to European 20 imperialism in the late nineteenth century? Indicative content With the scramble for Africa under way and the earlier colonisation of large areas of Asia by European powers, China was one of the last major areas offering a potential for the establishment of new trading opportunities. Though European powers led the way, by the 1890s both Japan and the US were increasingly involved economically in China. Also to be considered is the response of the Chinese government and its effects on the population of China. European involvement stemmed from the British defeat of China in the Opium Wars which ended with the Treaty of Tientsin in 1958 granting Britain preferential trading right and control of Hong Kong and opening China’s ports to foreign traders. This opened the way for an influx of Europeans who came for a variety of reasons; as diplomatic representative of foreign governments, as independent traders and as missionaries. Major coastal cities like Shanghai and Canton all developed enclaves for foreign traders and European traders all established their own spheres of influence where they built railways, set up factories and generally ignored local Chinese laws and authorities. Responses may discuss the influence of other powers. In 1894 after increasing conflict the first Sino–Japanese War broke out over control of the Korean Peninsula. This was a disaster for China whose troops were disorganised and poorly led, and the result was a humiliating defeat and the Treaty of Shimoshenko which gave Korea, Taiwan and the key military facility of Port Arthur to Japan. Then in 1899 the US entered the fray. Having recently gained the Philippines from Spain, McKinley wanted to expand US trading opportunities in the Far East and negotiated an ‘open door policy’ to ensure all foreign countries enjoyed equal benefits. However, this was negotiated with the other foreign powers not the Chinese authorities who were merely told about it. Internal pressures might also be considered, and the cumulative effect of the increasing foreign intervention was a growing nationalist movement aimed at driving out the foreigners who were taking control of their country. It was also a response to the influx of Christian missionaries who were believed to be undermining traditional Chinese values. There was also growing dissatisfaction with the ineffectiveness of the Imperial government in dealing with these foreigners. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/21 May/June 2024

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why Britain developed closer diplomatic relations with France after 1898. [10] (b) To what extent was New Imperialism based on theories of racial superiority? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why Britain developed closer diplomatic relations with France 10 after 1898. Indicative content A number of factors might be considered, some long-term and some more immediate. they include:  The Fashoda Incident 1898 led to a settlement of imperial issues between Britain and France and led to an improvement of relations leading to the Entente Cordiale.  Rise of Germany – Kaiser Wilhelm’s active search for ‘a place in the sun’ coupled with Tirpitz’s Navy Laws raised fears of German intentions and the threat to Britain’s two-power standard naval policy. An alliance with France would reduce the need for this.  Effects of the Boer War – the effort it took for Britain to overcome the Boers in the War of 1899–1902 raised doubts about the possibility of having to fight a more widespread war without allies and led to a change in perspective.  Since 1870 France had been isolated by Germany in Europe and was anxious to strengthen its position with new alliances.  Pressures of maintaining worldwide empire. With increasing threats to its empire Britain looked for new alliances to shore up its position. An alliance or understanding with France allowed them to share naval responsibilities in the Mediterranean and North Sea/Atlantic. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent was New Imperialism based on theories of racial 20 superiority? Indicative content In the early nineteenth century a theory was developed which claimed that there was a hierarchy of races in which white people were argued to be superior to any other groups. The publication of Darwin’s The Origin of Species seemed to justify this and became the basis of a theory known as Social Darwinism. This theory was used to justify the treatment of other races as inferior and thus to take control of the lands they owned. Consciously or not, this was in part responsible for the imposition of European style administration and laws and wherever Europeans settled they placed themselves at the head of the social hierarchy. They automatically assumed their systems and culture were superior to those of indigenous populations. For example, David Livingstone, missionary, and explorer, claimed that it was his duty to introduce Africans to three Cs: commerce, Christianity, and civilisation. On the other hand, whilst the belief in natural superiority might have underpinned the activities of European powers in the latter part of the nineteenth century, there were more immediate and practical considerations that led to the development of New Imperialism. The claim to be intent on ‘improving the lives of the local people’ was a useful justification for developing their own interests. Exploration of the interior by expeditions led by people like Livingstone and Stanley increased awareness of the potential for exploitation of the vast resources available. As the industrial revolution transformed European states the search by businesses for new resources and markets provided a significant impetus to the establishing of new colonies in Africa and Asia where large profits might be possible. Colonial expansion was also a matter of prestige when European powers were seeking to avoid conflict in Europe but still sought to establish their superiority. So, for example for France following the disaster of 1870 and for Germany with no colonial history, quick results were important, hence the ‘Scramble for Africa’. For some the moral obligation to end slavery, which was still practised in some areas of Africa, was an incentive as was the idea of basic Christian duty to spread the word of God. New imperialism was also helped by advances in medicine and technology which reduced the risk of travelling deep into more difficult environments and gave Europeans a technological advantage over indigenous populations. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/22 May/June 2024

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why increasing contact with foreign powers led to significant changes within Japan in the late nineteenth century. [10] (b) ‘It was popular support that encouraged European governments to pursue imperialist policies.’ How far do you agree? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why increasing contact with foreign powers led to significant 10 changes within Japan in the late nineteenth century. Indicative content Commodore Perry was sent by the US president to demand the opening of Japan to US trade and under threat of large-scale violence using all US modern weaponry Japan gave in and signed a treaty in 1854 allowing access to 2 Japanese ports. In 1858 they were forced to sign a second treaty allowing wider access for foreigners to more ports. This led to a radical change in Japan.  Perry’s success demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the Japanese miliary rulers (the Shogunate) as samurai swords were no match for modern western weapons. This led to the Meiji Restoration in 1868 when, after a brief civil war, the central power was returned to the ruling emperor and Japan began a process of rapid modernisation. This was based on the realisation that, in order to retain independence, Japan needed to adopt western ways.  Japan established a new system of education and government based on western models with a centralised administration and a constitution modelled on Germany.  Industrial development was prioritised with the development of mines and factories. These were initiated by the government and then handed over to private enterprise.  Developing export markets was prioritised especially textiles.  Increased wealth was channelled into developing military strength with one third of the national budget spent on the army and navy and compulsory military service was eventually introduced. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) ‘It was popular support that encouraged European governments to 20 pursue imperialist policies.’ How far do you agree? Indicative content A range of factors encouraged the expansion of European Empires in Africa and other parts of the world. Public support - In Britain, as the possessor of the largest overseas Empire, public pride in this achievement played a significant part in public support for imperial expansion. With the introduction of state education, in 1870, knowledge of Empire became a part of the school curriculum alongside the basics of reading writing and arithmetic. As literacy increased demand for newspapers expanded rapidly and wealthy pro-imperialists like Lord Northcliffe used them to promote overseas expansion. Popular literature also painted an exciting and exotic picture of empire that enhanced its appeal to the general population. In France this also became closely linked to patriotism and the restoration of national pride following the disasters of 1870, whilst in Germany the popular press was used to promote imperialism as a way of achieving national unity and reducing continuing internal divisions. In the 1890s Kaiser Wilhelm’s demand for a place in the sun had widespread popular backing. On the other hand, other factors encouraged imperial expansion. Exploration of the interior led by people like Livingstone and Stanley increased awareness of the potential for exploitation of the vast resources available. As the industrial revolution transformed European states the search by businesses for new resources and markets provided a significant impetus to the establishing of new colonies in Africa and Asia where large profits might be possible. Colonial expansion was also a matter of prestige when European powers were seeking to avoid conflict in Europe but still sought to establish their superiority. So, for example for France following the disaster of 1870 and for Germany with no colonial history, quick results were important, hence the ‘Scramble for Africa’. For some the moral obligation to end slavery, which was still in existence in some parts of Africa, was an incentive as was the idea of basic Christian duty to spread the word of God. Imperial expansion was also helped by advances in medicine and technology which reduced the risk of travelling deep into more difficult environments and gave Europeans a technological advantage over indigenous populations. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/23 May/June 2024

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why Japan was able to improve its international status by 1900. [10] (b) How far do economic factors explain the Scramble for Africa? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why Japan was able to improve its international status by 1900. 10 Indicative content Commodore Perry arrived in Japan in 1853 to force Japan to open its markets to US traders and it was subsequently forced to accept other western trading powers as well. This led to the realisation that to retain its independence and achieve international recognition Japan needed to reform. • In 1868 modernising elements overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate and brought to an end the medieval feudal system, restoring practical power to the emperor. • Japanese workers were allowed to go abroad to earn vital foreign currency. • Craftsmen were encouraged to abandon medieval traditional skills and swich to more practical and useful occupations. • Large-scale industrialisation was begun. Western technology was widely adopted and used to develop export industries. • Military reform was begun to modernise the army and end the traditional role of the Samurai class and Japan began building a modern western stye navy. • The effectiveness of the reform was demonstrated in the First Sino- Japanese war in 1894. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) How far do economic factors explain the Scramble for Africa? 20 Indicative content Discussion of economic factors might include how Africa offered access to a wide range of raw materials that were useful to growing European businesses. This was enhanced as exploration revealed sources of metal ores, especially gold, and diamonds in Southern Africa from the 1860s onwards. Africa also offered a market for cheaply produced goods from the growing industrial cities of Europe. The continent was important in controlling the trade routes to the Far East. Firstly, for Britain, around the Cape and later through the Suez Canal trade with India was a major source of wealth. The French had interests in Indo China and the Dutch and Portuguese also had colonies for which the trade routes were an important economic factor. Discussion of other factors might include how, after the unification of Italy and Germany and the Franco–Prussian War, the boundaries of Europe seemed increasingly fixed and there was a reluctance to challenge the new European order so expansionist urges were channelled into other parts of the world where tension would hopefully not lead to major European conflict. This was why the Congress of Berlin was held in 1884 to set out rules for claiming and colonising the lands of Africa. Some Europeans also felt they had a duty to spread European culture and impose superior European values on the less fortunate people of Africa. Social Darwinism was a factor often alongside the basic Christian intention to spread the faith. Science and technology helped also. Advances in weaponry made it possible for relatively small European armies to take control of large indigenous populations. Improvements in medicine also meant that it was now safer for Europeans to travel into the African interior without risk of serious illness and death. Furthermore, countries also saw empire as a matter of international prestige. This was particularly true of Germany which was a late arrival in the acquisition of overseas empire and, especially after the accession of Wilhelm II, was determined to gain its rightful ‘place in the sun’. The rise of the popular press in all countries led to a rise of highly nationalistic ‘jingoism’. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/21 Oct/Nov 2024

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why political considerations led to European interest in gaining territories in Africa after 1870. [10] (b) To what extent were the economic difficulties of the 1890s a cause of the change in US attitudes towards overseas expansion? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why political considerations led to European interest in gaining 10 territories in Africa after 1870. Indicative content The latter part of the nineteenth century saw a rising political awareness amongst the working class and education became more widespread and the popular press began to develop. Imperialism was seen as a way of diverting the rising interest of the lower classes in political issues. • Political power was in the hands of wealthy landowners and industrialists who stood to gain form imperial expansion and would thus support it. • Senior politician like Joseph Chamberlain in Britain and French PM Jules Ferry saw this as a way of diverting popular attention away from social and economic inequalities at home. • Politicians justified imperialism as a way of funding reforms at home. • Politicians used the popular press to whip up support for Imperialism – development of ‘jingoism’. • Overall politicians used imperialism to unite their people, regardless of wealth or class, in a common aim – imperial glory through overseas expansion. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent were the economic difficulties of the 1890s a cause of the 20 change in US attitudes towards overseas expansion? Indicative content In 1893 a spate of bankruptcies sparked an economic crisis in the USA and unemployment rose from 3.7m in 1892 to12.3 m in 1894. This ’panic’ was one of a number of factors that together led to a significant shift in US overseas policy. In terms of economic problems during the the late nineteenth century expansion westward and the development of trans-continental railways and the rapid growth of population through mass immigration, led to a rapidly expanding industrial base and rising production in all spheres of the economy. However, the downturn of 1893 highlighted the problem of overreliance on the domestic economic growth. Businesses of all types were relatively limited by the domestic market and the need to develop overseas markets was an obvious way of allowing continuing expansion. One of the obvious targets for economic expansion was Cuba which was only 90 miles off the Florida coast and where increasing conflict between Cuban and Spanish authorities gave the US a reason for intervention. Discussion of other factors might consider the fact that the economic downturn coincided with the ‘closing of the frontier’ produced a two-pronged impetus to expansion overseas. Driven by the idea of manifest destiny, the USA had expanded steadily to link up its east and west coast settlements but now that westward expansion was completed the idea took hold that the frontier should now be expanded outwards beyond the continental boundaries of the USA. They already had an interest in the Caribbean because of the Monroe Doctrine and this, to many, justified their action against the Spanish and the acquisition of Spanish territories there following the war on 1898. The US had also already established trade links with Japan and saw expansion into China as another lucrative possibility. The acquisition Spain’s Pacific territories promoted interest in this development. The election of expansionist President McKinley in 1896 and the growth of popularity of the yellow press, who strongly supported overseas intervention, also promoted the idea of developing overseas trade links and territories. McKinley’s successor, Theodore Roosevelt was even more enthusiastic and under him the Panama Canal Project was taken over by the USA and pushed ahead as a matter of priority. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/23 Oct/Nov 2024

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why there was a conference of European powers in Berlin in 1884–85. [10] (b) To what extent had the USA abandoned an isolationist foreign policy by 1914? [20]

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Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why there was a conference of European powers in Berlin in 10 1884–85. Indicative content The conference was called to set parameters of the future of European expansion in Africa. • The growth of New Imperialism led to growing interest in acquiring colonies in Africa. • New technologies were making exploration of the African interior a more viable proposition for more countries. • Because of the risk of starting a European war the countries interested in Africa were willing to establish a set of rules for claiming lands in Africa and this was the purpose of the Conference. • Bismarck was encouraged to call the conference by pressure from German merchants and industrialists who were anxious to gain access to African resources and markets. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent had the USA abandoned an isolationist foreign policy by 20 1914? Indicative content In support of the statement a number of events had moved the US into a higher profile international position and candidates may discuss a range, including: the Spanish American War of 1898 which resulted in the US becoming an imperial power as it took control of all the Spanish territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific; the influence of presidents McKinley and Roosevelt who were both actively in support of a more expansionist US policy and America’s role as mediator in the Russo Japanese war leading to the signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth. Responses may also include discussion of the Panama Canal Project which the US took over from France and the building of the Great White Fleet and its subsequent world tour were an indication that the US was seeking to assert its place as a global power. The US also abandoned isolation due to involvement through the Open Door policy in the Asian markets. In challenging the statement responses may discuss how the change in policy still reflected the importance in US decision making of commercial and economic interests and did not show and significant intention of engaging with other world powers other than where these interests were threatened. Hence the introduction, in 1904, of Roosevelt’s Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt’s intervention in the Russo-Japanese War. In 1914 war broke out in Europe but Wilson was firmly committed to keeping the US out of the war as he saw no benefits for the US in intervention. This was supported by many Americans who had moved to the country to escape European conflicts and were drawn from both sides of the current war. However, the US continued to benefit from trade as result of the war taking over many South American markets from European producers. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/21 May/June 2025

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why the Treaty of Paris, 1898, marked an important development in US overseas policy. [10] (b) How important was technological innovation in the development of New Imperialism after 1871? [20]

30 marks

Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why the Treaty of Paris 1898 marked an important development 10 in US overseas policy. Indicative content Following the Civil War, the US had concentrated on Reconstruction, internal growth, industrial development, and westward expansion. This changed in the late 1890s. in 1898 they fought and won the Spanish American War which was ended by this treaty. • It marked the emergence of the USA as an imperial power. • Cuba though nominally independent fell under effective US control and provided an immediate focus for economic expansion. • The Philippines were ceded to the US and almost immediately began a war of independence which the US ruthlessly crushed. • Isolationists objected to this development but their candidate in the 1900 election was strongly defeated by the expansionist McKinley. • To defend its new territories the US had to review and develop its naval power along the lines suggested in Mahan’s book on the History of Sea Power published in 1890. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) How important was technological innovation in the development of New 20 Imperialism after 1871? Indicative content Technological innovation gave the means to conquer, control and exploit areas. Iron hulled steamships were much more reliable for exploration along the rivers that ran towards the heart of Africa like the Congo. Steamships and railroads facilitated the rapid transport of troops and resources. At the same time more effective guns were developed which gave Europeans a big advantage over indigenous tribesmen. The telegraph allowed coordination and control over long distances. Medical developments - development of new treatments to tackle the tropical diseases that had such a disastrous effect on earlier exploration allowed safer incursion into the African interior. Discussion of alternative influences might include opposition to slavery. By the mid nineteenth century European countries had largely banned slavery, but it continued to be practiced in parts of Africa and some Europeans sought to put an end to this. Another influence that might be considered are Christian missionaries. They believed it was their duty to take the word of God to the uneducated natives of Africa- all the Christian churches began to send missionaries to convert local tribes. Some responses might also discuss the influence of racial theories. Europeans began to develop theories of racial superiority and believed it was their duty to take over and educate the less developed peoples of Africa and teach them to be more like Europeans. National pride. It became a matter of national pride to have more colonies than other countries. The development of the popular press in particular encouraged this. Industrialisation and expansion of trade also encouraged imperialism and attracted new countries to imperial ambitions, particularly Belgium, Italy and Germany. Africa was one of the few areas available for these newly ambitious states. Avoiding war between European powers also became a major issue and, as most of Africa was not ‘claimed’, it was relatively easy to meet in Berlin in 1884–5 and draw up a set of rules for the establishing of colonies and claiming territory, in Africa. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/21 Oct/Nov 2025

7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why the Second Boer War led to heavy criticism of Britain. [10] (b) To what extent did the Anglo-Japanese Alliance contribute to the Japanese victory over Russia in 1905? [20]

30 marks

Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why the Second Boer War led to heavy criticism of Britain. 10 Indicative content • Germany in particular, and other European nations in general, saw this as an attempt by the British to bully a small independent nation for their own gain. • It also breached the agreement on the right to claim territory that was part of the Treaty signed at the end of the Berlin Conference in 1885. • The ‘scorched earth’ tactics – destroying farms crops and livestock so that the guerrilla fighters would not be able to make use of local supplies, were heavily criticised. • To undermine the Boers morale the British also set up ‘concentration camps’ where they imprisoned the wives and children of Boer fighters. These were originally meant to be refugee centres for those displaced by the fighting, but they soon became effectively prisons in which the poor hygiene and lack of food led to the death of around 30,000 civilians as a result of the war. This caused even greater international condemnation of the British Note: this question is about international responses and not about internal criticism of the government. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) To what extent did the Anglo-Japanese Alliance contribute to the 20 Japanese victory over Russia in 1905? Indicative content In support of the statement responses may consider how, f aced with similar concerns about Russian expansion in the Far East, negotiations began in 1901 to agree on a common policy, and this was confirmed in the Anglo- Japanese Alliance signed in 1902. In it the two agreed to remain neutral if either country was involved in a war but to come to each other’s aid if faced with a war against two or more opponents. This gave Japan the confidence to seek settlement of outstanding issues over their respective rights in Chinese territory in Manchuria and Korea, but the Russian refused to negotiate and instead invaded Korea. After the initial stunning success of the Japanese attack on Port Arthur the Russians were left with only their Baltic fleet to continue the war but made the mistake of accidentally firing on the British North Sea fishing fleet enroute. As a result of this and their alliance with the Japanese the British refused Russia access to the Suez Canal so they were forced to take the long route round South Africa. By the time they reached Japan the Japanese had had time to consolidate the position and prepare, and the exhausted Russian Fleet stood little chance against them in the Battle of the Tsushima Straits. Consideration of other factors might include Russian overconfidence. Russia was convinced that against a minor regional power they would have no trouble in winning a quick victory. They also failed to account for the fact that Japan had been taking time to build up modern and efficient navy which was more than a match for the slow and outdated Russian fleets. The Russians were unprepared for the surprise Japanese attack on Port Arthur. The warships in port at the time had no opportunity to respond. Once the war had started the Russians were hampered by the lack of reinforcements and long slow lines of communication. The Japanese, who had short lines of communication and supply, overran their position in Manchuria and after a 3- month siege forced the surrender of the final Russian forces in Mukden. The Russians were hampered from taking further action by the growing unrest leading to the 1905 Revolution. They were left with no choice but to seek a settlement with Japan. Accept any other valid responses.

This question in 9489/22 Oct/Nov 2025