How do sociologists investigate society? (continued) — Paper 2 — IGCSE Sociology 0495 topical questions

Question 1

According to media representations and official measurements of crime, white-collar crime is unusual in society. Marxists do not believe th…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘white-collar crime’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. fraud examples of white collar crimes with no definition should be classed as ‘partial’. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. non-violent crime committed by people in the course of their (middle class) jobs. 3(b) Describe two deterrents to crime. 4 Possible answers: • physical/corporal punishment – preventing crime through the threat of physical harm; • the death penalty – the ultimate sanction/fear factor; • the penal system (prisons) – loss of liberty will prevent crime; • community service – forcing people to give back to the community they have harmed will deter them from crime; • monetary penalties e.g. fines – a financial loss will make people think twice; • demonisation and identification through the media i.e. ‘name and shame’; • rehabilitation – making the offender change their attitudes and behaviour in order to prevent future crimes; • informal social control e.g. family influences and socialisation, religious teachings, losing your job, losing your children, etc.; • negative sanctions (can be formal or informal) that punish you if you do not act in a socially approved way i.e. are criminal; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how victim surveys can be used to measure crime. 6 VICTIM SURVEY – research that asks people what crimes they have been victims of. Candidates may refer to local and/or national victim surveys in their response or may talk about victim surveys more generally. Specific examples may also be discussed e.g. BCS, CSEW, feminist victim surveys (e.g. Campbell), Left realist victim surveys (e.g. Young). Possible answers: • respondents are likely to be willing to report to researchers crimes that they have been a victim of but haven’t necessarily reported to the police; • they ask people what crimes they have been a victim of; • they can be used to uncover more of the hidden figure of crime as they include those crimes not reported to/recorded by the police; • victim surveys can show new patterns in crime based on more valid information than the OCS e.g. the BCS has discovered that young working class males in cities are the most likely to be crime victims; • victim surveys can be large scale and used to measure victimisation across a country e.g. the BCS; • victim surveys can be conducted on a local scale to uncover patterns and experiences of victimisation in a local area i.e. the Islington survey; • victim surveys are often anonymous and this encourages victims to be honest in their responses; • some victim surveys (typically local ones) use interview questions in order to gain a rapport with the victim to fully understand their feelings; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how victim surveys can be used to measure crime and may talk about e.g. Showing the real picture of victimisation. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how victim surveys can be used to measure crime. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. Victim surveys can reveal a more valid picture of crime than the OCS as they also include crimes that have not been reported to the police i.e. the dark figure of crime. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 3(d) Explain why the media can influence how people think about crime. 8 Candidates may discuss factual (e.g. news) media or fictional media (e.g. crime thrillers, films), etc. Possible answers: • most people have little direct contact with crime, therefore how the media represent it will determine how they think about it; • despite evidence to the contrary, most people believe crime is rising and is a serious problem – this view is said to come from the media; • the media create moral panics about crime and label some groups as folk devils – the audience believes this to be true so influences ideas about crime; • the media is global and heavily used by most people – this gives it a great deal of power over the way we think about crime/criminals; • media role models and/or opinion leaders often influence how the audience think i.e. about crime; • media show stereotypical representations of some social groups as criminal e.g. ethnic minorities, males, youth which causes people to think these people are most likely to be criminal; • media focuses typically on street and working class crime, ignoring white-collar crime and criminals – this influences how people think about the ‘crime problem’ and criminals; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the media is thought to be influential in determining how we think about crime. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. The media is used a lot stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why the media is thought to be influential in determining how we think about crime. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. The media are an important source of knowledge for the audience and as most of us have little direct contact with crime, they become the primary source of information for us, etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 3(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] 8 Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why the media is thought to be influential in determining how we think about crime and will be well developed and explained, e.g. The media create moral panics about crime in which a social group is portrayed as a folk devil and blamed for crime. That social group becomes stigmatised and the audience start to label them negatively as criminals. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent does Marxist theory explain why some people commit 15 crime? Candidates should explain how Marxism explains why some people commit crime. Flaws in this theory could then be discussed alongside other explanations for why crime is committed in evaluation. Possible answers: FOR: • the working class are criminalised/labelled by the ruling class in order that they do not question the status quo i.e. to accept a false class consciousness; • laws are created to reflect the interests of the ruling class and therefore the crimes of the working class are more visible and more likely to be prosecuted; • the working class may rebel and resist against the perceived inequalities caused by capitalism and so turn to crime e.g. CCCS research into deviant youth sub-cultures; • because society is capitalist, inequalities are manifold and this can lead to material deprivation for some disadvantaged social groups, leading eventually to crime; • marginalisation – the working class do not really have organisations to protect their interests so they have no other outlet for their frustrations than violence and crime; • alienation – the working class may not feel like they are highly valued in society and may feel that they are exploited for their labour therefore turn to crime; • social exclusion – some lower class people are excluded from full participation in education, work and community life. As they are denied these opportunities for legitimate success, they turn to crime; • status frustration – the working class may commit crime because they have a low status in society and try to improve this through crime; • some members of the ruling class may commit crime because they know they are able to get away with it e.g. fraud; • other reasonable response. 3(e) AGAINST: 15 • Marxist theory can be criticised on the grounds that some laws are clearly in everyone’s interests and do not serve the interests of the ruling class; • perhaps inadequate socialisation is a better explanation for crime; • functionalist explanations for crime i.e. that crime reinforces common values in others, Merton’s strain theory and Cohen’s status frustration; • postmodernism – crime being committed as it is fun and exciting – edgework; • labelling theory – crime is committed because some social groups are labelled as criminal by the media and the police – can lead to deviancy amplification, master status and deviant careers; • crime is committed by males more than females as it is a way to prove their masculinity; • crime is committed due to peer pressure i.e. being in a gang/deviant sub-culture; • most members of the working class do not commit crime; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of how Marxism explains why some people commit crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. Poor people commit crime for money OR Crime is committed by the working class. Lower in the band (1–2 marks) expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3– 4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. Marxism criticises capitalism, in the question. 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] 15 In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of how Marxism explains why some people commit crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. Marxist theory believes working class people commit crime because they don’t have enough money OR Marxism says that the powerful people make the laws, etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of how Marxism explains why some people commit crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. Despite relative deprivation probably being a reason for crime to be committed, poor socialisation at home may also be relevant. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of how Marxism explains why some people commit crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of Marxist explanations for crime, citing some of the examples given.

Question 2

Researching why crime is committed is a complex issue due to the many possible explanations. One explanation is status frustration. This is…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘status frustration’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘annoyed by your low status’. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘when people are unable to achieve the socially accepted goals due to their position in society’. 2 3(b) Describe two reasons why the police might not record a crime that has been reported to them. Possible answers: • police may be under pressure to focus on particular crimes and so are reluctant to report crimes that aren’t in this category – police targets and quotas; • the police may believe the crime to be too petty to bother recording it; • the police may feel it is a domestic incident that should be dealt with by the individuals involved and so don’t record it; • the police may be doubtful of the credibility of the person reporting the crime and so don’t record it; • police need evidence that the crime reported is indeed a crime, if not then they are unlikely to record it e.g. theft rather than lost property; • police discretion means that the police have the power to decide whether something should be recorded as a crime or not; • the police may not believe that they are able to solve the crime and so do not record it e.g. cybercrime; • the police may be corrupt and so do not record the crime in order to protect a powerful and influential individual/group; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4 Question Answer Marks 3(c) Explain how the media can create deviancy amplification. Possible answers: • media exaggeration, glamorisation and sensationalism leads to people copying what they see so leading to deviancy amplification; • criminals believe that there are certain crimes they are able to get away with due to its representation in the media and so this leads to more crime being committed; • creating folk devils e.g. young people, drug addicts, etc. in the media leads to them feeling frustrated/alienated and therefore committing more crime; • moral panics and stigmatisation e.g. the mods and the rockers – stereotypical reporting leads to the ‘criminals’ acting in the way they have been portrayed in the media and so more crime is committed – labelling theory and the self-fulfilling prophecy; • moral panics – the media predict crime and therefore cause the police/authorities to look out for that crime so seemingly more crime has been committed; • media reports of crime can lead to a bigger police presence e.g. with the mods and rockers in Clacton (Cohen) which increases the risk of confrontation and therefore increases the likelihood of crime; • scapegoating – some social groups are blamed for society’s problems by the media and so it is unsurprising that they turn to crime as a reaction to this e.g. ethnic minorities; • Marxism – the media promotes consumption as desirable, those that cannot afford to buy the consumer goods seen may turn to crime instead; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media can create deviancy amplification and may talk about e.g. ‘the media show some people in a bad way so they can’t get jobs and turn to crime’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 6 Question Answer Marks 3(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the media can create deviancy amplification. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘the media create folk devils who are blamed for certain crimes. This can lead to the group or individual feeling status frustration and therefore turning to crime as a response’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. Question Answer Marks 3(d) Explain why males commit more crime than females. Possible answers: • differential socialisation – processes such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley) mean that boys and girls grow up with very different gender identities – males are tougher, more independent and so more likely to commit crime; • differential social control – males tend to have less social control imposed upon them than females – this gives them more opportunities to commit crime; • masculinity – males are often under pressure to prove their masculinity – being criminal is one way to do this e.g. male peer group pressure; • breadwinner role – males may feel pressure to provide for their partner/family and if they do not have a job or enough money they may suffer from status frustration and thus turn to instrumental crime; • males are more susceptible to peer pressure and so could join an anti-school sub-culture or a deviant group where criminality is normal; • males are more likely to join gangs than females – gangs are based upon criminal behaviour, indeed this gains members status; • opportunity – some crimes, such as corporate crime, are committed in the work place – as these are typically male dominated it is easier for the male to commit the crime; • males are thought to be naturally more aggressive than females, e.g. testosterone levels, and so may be more likely to commit crime; • media role models – many of these for males engage in criminal behaviour and this is not sanctioned, rather it can bring positive rewards – imitation may occur; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why males commit more crime than females. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘men are more aggressive’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 8 Question Answer Marks 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than females. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘males commit more crime because they have been socialised in their families to be tough and independent’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than females and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘males commit more crime than females because of the pressure on them to prove their masculinity. If they don’t do this then they can be labelled as effeminate by their peers. One way to do this is to commit crime. Young males are far more likely to be gang members than young females and may engage in criminal rites of passages such as robbing someone in order to gain status and show their masculinity’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks 3(e) To what extent do victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime? Possible answers: FOR: • they uncover unreported (hidden) crimes that the formal agents do not know about and so are more valid than the OCS; • asking people what crimes they have been a victim of is likely to provoke a true response as there is no harm/threat to the respondent; • national victim surveys such as the BCS/CSEW are now so well thought of that they are published alongside the OCS by the government in order to show a more accurate picture of crime; • victim surveys are typically completed using interviews, allowing the researcher to gain a rapport with the respondent and so get them to open up honestly about things/crimes; • victim surveys offer full confidentiality to the respondent and so encourage truthful/valid answers; • local victim surveys, such as The Islington Survey, allow for researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of the nature of crime victims in a local area; • victim surveys can call into question the validity of the patterns and trends seen in the OCS e.g. the BCS has shown that the group thought to be the most criminal in society (young working class males) are also the most likely to be victims of crime; • victim surveys can show those crimes that have not been recorded by the police, so giving a more accurate picture of crime and uncovering more of the ‘dark figure’; • feminist researchers believe that local victim surveys help to uncover the true extent of the victimisation that women have to endure; • other reasonable response. 15 Question Answer Marks 3(e) AGAINST: • victim surveys cannot cover all types of crimes – they do not, for example, cover victimless crimes such as drug use; • victim surveys do not usually cover crimes committed against children as children are not normally the respondents in this research method – therefore they still do not reveal the full, true picture; • some respondents may be unwilling to reveal personal information about themselves to a researcher e.g. victims of sexual assault or abuse, therefore the picture of crime that is produced is still not accurate; • this method relies on the memory of the respondents and so is unlikely to be fully accurate as people will forget things; • national victim surveys will inevitably generalise the picture of crime and are therefore thought by some sociologists to be of little use in really understanding crime and its victims; • local victim surveys are typically based upon a small and unrepresentative sample and are criticised by many sociologists as being atypical and not generalisable; • white collar and corporate crime is likely to be under-represented in victim surveys as those involved may not know that they were the victims of crime; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘they find out about crimes the police don’t know about’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘victim surveys are where people are asked what crimes they have been a victim of’. Question Answer Marks 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘not everyone reports a crime committed against them to the police and victim surveys are a good way to find out about these’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite the OCS being recognised as the most easily accessible source of information on crime, victim surveys are thought by many sociologists to produce a far more valid picture due to the uncovering of the dark figure of crime’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of the usefulness of the victim survey in providing an accurate picture of crime, citing some of the examples given.

Question 3

Researching why crime is committed is a complex issue due to the many possible explanations. One explanation is status frustration. This is…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘status frustration’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. ‘annoyed by your low status’. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. ‘when people are unable to achieve the socially accepted goals due to their position in society’. 2 3(b) Describe two reasons why the police might not record a crime that has been reported to them. Possible answers: • police may be under pressure to focus on particular crimes and so are reluctant to report crimes that aren’t in this category – police targets and quotas; • the police may believe the crime to be too petty to bother recording it; • the police may feel it is a domestic incident that should be dealt with by the individuals involved and so don’t record it; • the police may be doubtful of the credibility of the person reporting the crime and so don’t record it; • police need evidence that the crime reported is indeed a crime, if not then they are unlikely to record it e.g. theft rather than lost property; • police discretion means that the police have the power to decide whether something should be recorded as a crime or not; • the police may not believe that they are able to solve the crime and so do not record it e.g. cybercrime; • the police may be corrupt and so do not record the crime in order to protect a powerful and influential individual/group; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4 Question Answer Marks 3(c) Explain how the media can create deviancy amplification. Possible answers: • media exaggeration, glamorisation and sensationalism leads to people copying what they see so leading to deviancy amplification; • criminals believe that there are certain crimes they are able to get away with due to its representation in the media and so this leads to more crime being committed; • creating folk devils e.g. young people, drug addicts, etc. in the media leads to them feeling frustrated/alienated and therefore committing more crime; • moral panics and stigmatisation e.g. the mods and the rockers – stereotypical reporting leads to the ‘criminals’ acting in the way they have been portrayed in the media and so more crime is committed – labelling theory and the self-fulfilling prophecy; • moral panics – the media predict crime and therefore cause the police/authorities to look out for that crime so seemingly more crime has been committed; • media reports of crime can lead to a bigger police presence e.g. with the mods and rockers in Clacton (Cohen) which increases the risk of confrontation and therefore increases the likelihood of crime; • scapegoating – some social groups are blamed for society’s problems by the media and so it is unsurprising that they turn to crime as a reaction to this e.g. ethnic minorities; • Marxism – the media promotes consumption as desirable, those that cannot afford to buy the consumer goods seen may turn to crime instead; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how the media can create deviancy amplification and may talk about e.g. ‘the media show some people in a bad way so they can’t get jobs and turn to crime’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 6 Question Answer Marks 3(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how the media can create deviancy amplification. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘the media create folk devils who are blamed for certain crimes. This can lead to the group or individual feeling status frustration and therefore turning to crime as a response’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. Question Answer Marks 3(d) Explain why males commit more crime than females. Possible answers: • differential socialisation – processes such as canalisation and manipulation (Oakley) mean that boys and girls grow up with very different gender identities – males are tougher, more independent and so more likely to commit crime; • differential social control – males tend to have less social control imposed upon them than females – this gives them more opportunities to commit crime; • masculinity – males are often under pressure to prove their masculinity – being criminal is one way to do this e.g. male peer group pressure; • breadwinner role – males may feel pressure to provide for their partner/family and if they do not have a job or enough money they may suffer from status frustration and thus turn to instrumental crime; • males are more susceptible to peer pressure and so could join an anti-school sub-culture or a deviant group where criminality is normal; • males are more likely to join gangs than females – gangs are based upon criminal behaviour, indeed this gains members status; • opportunity – some crimes, such as corporate crime, are committed in the work place – as these are typically male dominated it is easier for the male to commit the crime; • males are thought to be naturally more aggressive than females, e.g. testosterone levels, and so may be more likely to commit crime; • media role models – many of these for males engage in criminal behaviour and this is not sanctioned, rather it can bring positive rewards – imitation may occur; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why males commit more crime than females. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘men are more aggressive’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 8 Question Answer Marks 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than females. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘males commit more crime because they have been socialised in their families to be tough and independent’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why males commit more crime than females and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘males commit more crime than females because of the pressure on them to prove their masculinity. If they don’t do this then they can be labelled as effeminate by their peers. One way to do this is to commit crime. Young males are far more likely to be gang members than young females and may engage in criminal rites of passages such as robbing someone in order to gain status and show their masculinity’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks 3(e) To what extent do victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime? Possible answers: FOR: • they uncover unreported (hidden) crimes that the formal agents do not know about and so are more valid than the OCS; • asking people what crimes they have been a victim of is likely to provoke a true response as there is no harm/threat to the respondent; • national victim surveys such as the BCS/CSEW are now so well thought of that they are published alongside the OCS by the government in order to show a more accurate picture of crime; • victim surveys are typically completed using interviews, allowing the researcher to gain a rapport with the respondent and so get them to open up honestly about things/crimes; • victim surveys offer full confidentiality to the respondent and so encourage truthful/valid answers; • local victim surveys, such as The Islington Survey, allow for researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of the nature of crime victims in a local area; • victim surveys can call into question the validity of the patterns and trends seen in the OCS e.g. the BCS has shown that the group thought to be the most criminal in society (young working class males) are also the most likely to be victims of crime; • victim surveys can show those crimes that have not been recorded by the police, so giving a more accurate picture of crime and uncovering more of the ‘dark figure’; • feminist researchers believe that local victim surveys help to uncover the true extent of the victimisation that women have to endure; • other reasonable response. 15 Question Answer Marks 3(e) AGAINST: • victim surveys cannot cover all types of crimes – they do not, for example, cover victimless crimes such as drug use; • victim surveys do not usually cover crimes committed against children as children are not normally the respondents in this research method – therefore they still do not reveal the full, true picture; • some respondents may be unwilling to reveal personal information about themselves to a researcher e.g. victims of sexual assault or abuse, therefore the picture of crime that is produced is still not accurate; • this method relies on the memory of the respondents and so is unlikely to be fully accurate as people will forget things; • national victim surveys will inevitably generalise the picture of crime and are therefore thought by some sociologists to be of little use in really understanding crime and its victims; • local victim surveys are typically based upon a small and unrepresentative sample and are criticised by many sociologists as being atypical and not generalisable; • white collar and corporate crime is likely to be under-represented in victim surveys as those involved may not know that they were the victims of crime; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘they find out about crimes the police don’t know about’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘victim surveys are where people are asked what crimes they have been a victim of’. Question Answer Marks 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. ‘not everyone reports a crime committed against them to the police and victim surveys are a good way to find out about these’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite the OCS being recognised as the most easily accessible source of information on crime, victim surveys are thought by many sociologists to produce a far more valid picture due to the uncovering of the dark figure of crime’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which victim surveys provide an accurate measure of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent«?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of the usefulness of the victim survey in providing an accurate picture of crime, citing some of the examples given.

Question 4

Does deprivation cause crime? This question is debated by sociologists and politicians who want to prevent anomie in society. However, due …

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘anomie’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. society has broken down ... is in chaos Two marks for clear definition, e.g. when the social bonds and shared values between society and individuals are broken ... normlessness 3(b) Describe two reasons for the dark figure of crime. 4 Possible answers: • not all crimes are known about, e.g. victimless crimes; • not all crimes are reported to the police, e.g. out of embarrassment/a feeling that nothing will be done/fear of reprisals, etc.; • sexual crimes are grossly under-reported due to the sensitive and somewhat taboo nature of these crimes; • not all crimes reported are recorded by the police – they may be perceived as being too petty or unlikely to be solved; • white-collar/corporate crimes are often dealt with by the company/business involved and so never make it into the crime statistics; • governments may massage the crime statistics so that they appear in a good light; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how crime can be committed using the internet. 6 Possible answers: • cybercrimes – these are becoming more commonplace and include any crime involving the use of new digital technologies such as the internet; • examples of internet crime may be discussed such as fraud, identity theft, catfishing, internet scams, etc.; • cyberterrorism is a growing phenomenon whereby the internet is used for deliberate, widespread attacks on computers, e.g. hacking a Government website; • trade in illegal drugs and goods is thought to be aided by the internet which makes it easier for buyers and sellers to contact each other; • harassment through cyberstalking and cyberbullying is increasing as the internet provides anonymity to the criminal; • policing internet crimes is difficult because they cross national boundaries and/or are committed on the dark net; • criminals often have more specialist internet knowledge than the police or surveillance operations and thus can commit complex crimes that the authorities have little idea how to prevent; • digital piracy and illegal streaming of media entertainment occurs regularly and is almost impossible to control; • the dark web/dark net can be used to commit crime due to the lack of control and formal surveillance; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question and may talk about examples of crimes that can be committed on the internet in a list-like manner, e.g. fraud, cybercrimes, etc. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of the question. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected, e.g. ‘globalisation means that many internet crimes cross national boundaries and so are hard to police. Different forces operate different policies with different priorities. Also the criminals are often more adept than the authorities at these cybercrimes as they involve the use of complex and specialist technologies. Cyberterrorism is one such crime’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 3(d) Explain why societies need prisons. 8 Possible answers: • prisons act as a formal agent of social control for society, maintaining social order; • incapacitation – prisons prevent offenders from committing more crimes; • deterrence – prisons deter both offenders and other members of society from committing crimes by making them aware of the consequences of offending; • rehabilitation – prisons offer courses, support and training facilities that can prevent the offender from committing further offences by changing their attitudes and behaviour; • prison offers a form of punishment and/or revenge by taking away a person’s freedom and making them pay for the crimes they have committed; • for functionalists prisons act as a sign to the population of what will happen if they step out of line and fail to conform to society’s norms and values – warning functions; • prisons lock dangerous criminals away and so protects society and individuals – keeps them safe; • a prison sentence allows victims to feel that justice has been served; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘they lock the bad people away’, stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why societies need prisons. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range, e.g. ‘prisons send out a warning signal to others in society about what will happen if they commit a crime’. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 3(d) Band [3–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why societies need prisons and will be well developed and explained, e.g. ‘prisons aim to rehabilitate prisoners in order to make them better members of society. They do this through support programmes and training courses and so are essential for society’. They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is crime caused by deprivation? 15 Possible answers: For: • Marxism – inequalities caused by capitalism means that some people find themselves living in poverty, this may lead to crime; • events such as the London Riots 2011 saw those young people feeling excluded and marginalised from society committing crime (Lea and Young); • material deprivation – lacking desirable resources and money may lead some individuals to crime; • relative deprivation – when individuals or social groups see themselves as not having what others have crime may result; • Merton’s strain theory – the inability to achieve what others are achieving legitimately may lead some people into crime; • cultural deprivation – those deprived of a good upbringing (inadequate socialisation) may also turn to crime; • those deprived of the opportunities to gain educational qualifications and so to access the job ladder may turn to crime as a response; • Cohen – status frustration – those deprived of status in society may turn to crime as an alternative means of gaining their status; • according to the OCS (official crime statistics) most crimes are committed by those from the lower strata of society, i.e. the deprived; • other reasonable response. 3(e) Against: • deprivation cannot explain the crimes of the powerful, e.g. white-collar, corporate, green, etc.; • functionalists believe crime can be a good thing for society and that it is not linked to deprivation, e.g. a warning function; • postmodernists believe crime is committed as a release from boredom, a way to have fun by participating in ‘edgework’; • feminists believe that crime is committed to enable men to further dominate women in a patriarchal society; • Matza believes that crime is a normal part of growing up for young people from all social classes and backgrounds – it is not linked to deprivation; • expressive crimes are often committed for no financial gain and therefore cannot be linked to deprivation; • labelling theorists believe that crime is caused by giving someone a master status of ‘criminal’ through the creation of a self-fulfilling prophecy; • police targeting of certain social groups may lead to deviancy amplification through, for example, perceived institutional racism; • crime may be caused by peer pressure rather than deprivation, particularly for young people; • sub-cultural explanations for crime, e.g. Miller’s focal concerns, the illegitimate opportunity structure may be more appropriate than deprivation; • status frustration may be a more convincing explanation for crime than deprivation; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band will be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent of the question. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided, e.g. ‘people steal if they haven’t got enough money’. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. ‘deprivation means being poor’. 3(e) Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent of the question. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely, e.g. ‘when someone realises they do not have the same as others they may turn to crime as a way of getting what they want’. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent of the question. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that ‘despite poverty and deprivation clearly being a relevant factor in explaining crime, other factors need to also be considered. For example, poor socialisation may be a reason, with individuals either being brought up not knowing right from wrong or with criminal role models to teach them about a life of crime’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well- developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which crime is caused by deprivation. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether crime is caused by deprivation, citing some of the examples given.

Question 5

There are official and non-official statistics that measure the crime rate in a society. However, not all crimes are accurately represented…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘formal social control’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. the police. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. formal social control is the ways the Government or its agencies get people to conform to the law. 3(b) Describe two punishments for crime. 4 Candidates will describe two different punishments for crime – these could be formal or informal. Possible answers: • a prison sentence – takes away a person’s freedom; • the death sentence – for the most serious crimes the punishment may be death; • corporal punishment – some societies punish criminals physically e.g. with lashes; • community sentencing – non-custodial sentences that help the community in some way; • exile or ostracism – the offender has to leave or is excluded from their community; • tagging – electronic tags can be used to monitor a person’s behaviour and whereabouts; • fine – a monetary sanction designed to punish offenders financially; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how poverty can be linked to crime. 6 Candidates should show an understanding of how poverty can be linked to crime. Specific examples may be referred to as may the Marxist view. Possible answers: • relative deprivation – when individuals see themselves as deprived in relation to others crime may occur (Merton strain theory); • marginalisation – when groups have no organisations to represent and protect their interests therefore may turn to crime to vent their frustrations and anger at society (Lea and Young); • in countries with no/inadequate welfare systems, crime may be the only way to survive; • Cloward and Ohlin believed that in deprived and poor communities individuals engaged in criminal or deviant behaviour to be part of the illegitimate opportunity structure when mainstream society offered them few possibilities for legitimate success; • poorer people are more likely to be labelled as criminal and are thus targeted more by the formal agents e.g. stop and search/arrest rates; • deviant careers – the effects of public labelling can devastate a person and give them little choice but to adopt a life of crime; • Cohen – status frustration – poorer people may find it difficult to achieve status in legitimate means in society and so may turn to crime for this instead; • Marxists believe that capitalism causes crime as it creates an unequal society that keeps poor people poor and rich people rich and sees a growing gap in inequalities; • the media often turn the poor into folk devils and blame them for criminal activities in society; • individuals may turn to crime in response to these negative labels; • the underclass – Charles Murray – are said to have a distinct set of deviant values which can be linked to criminality; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how poverty can be linked to crime and may talk about e.g. ‘many poorer people may commit crime as a way to get desirable items in society’. Responses may be short and un/under developed. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. 3(c) Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how poverty can be linked to crime and deviance. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected e.g. ‘The media create folk devils from poor people and the underclass in society who are blamed for certain crimes e.g. inner-city riots. This can lead to the group or individual feeling status frustration and therefore turning to crime as a response. They self-fulfil their negative label which further links poverty to crime’. This would be followed by explanation of factors leading to this. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 3(d) Explain why white-collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded 8 in the official crime statistics. Candidates should show an understanding of a range of reasons why white- collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the OCS. Candidates do not need to discuss both under-reporting and under-recording separately to score the marks. WHITE-COLLAR CRIME – non-violent crime committed by middle class people for financial gain e.g. fraud, embezzlement. Possible answers: • not reported – as white-collar crimes are financial rather than physical people are not always aware that they have been a victim; • not reported – some people may feel that reporting a white-collar crime is a waste of time as nothing can be done about it; • not reported – sometimes white-collar crimes may not be reported because the victim may be part of the organisation that has committed the crime and does not want to get into trouble themselves; • white collar crimes are sometimes not seen to be as important as other types of crime hence why they are not always reported and not always recorded; • not recorded – the police may feel there is little chance of a prosecution due to a lack of evidence; • the police may take bribes from the offending company/individual which leads to under-recording; • Marxists believe that the police work for the state and therefore are reluctant to record white-collar crimes as they are part of this same exploitative elite leading to under-recording; • police may not record white-collar crimes because they are dealt with internally by the company involved; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why white-collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the OCS. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped, e.g. ‘police officers take bribes from wealthy business men’ stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2-3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. 3(d) Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why white-collar crime is under-reported and under-recorded in the OCS. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. e.g. ‘white-collar crime is financial and so does not cause any physical harm to people which makes it harder to spot. Many people don’t know they have been a victim of this kind of crime and so that is why it doesn’t get reported’ etc. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why white-collar crime is under-reported ad under-recorded in the OCS and will be well developed and explained. e.g. ‘under-reported and under-recorded crime is known as the dark figure. There is a large dark figure of white-collar crime because many people are not aware that they have been a victim of this kind of invisible crime. The police may also not record these crimes very often as often other companies deal with the offence instead e.g. credit card companies, financial institutions. They do not want the crimes to be public knowledge and cause a moral panic and so these are often kept hidden’ etc. ’ They can then expand on the explanation of this and other factors as necessary. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent are self-report studies the most accurate measurement 15 of crime? Candidates should consider the ways in which self-report studies could be the most accurate measurement of crime. Local/culturally specific examples may be referred to. In evaluation the issues with self-report studies could be considered and/or the advantages of victim surveys and official statistics as better measurements of crime. Possible answers: FOR • official measures of crime such as statistics contain a huge dark figure and therefore unofficial methods like self report studies are a better measure of crime as the dark figure is uncovered; • self-report studies ask people anonymously whether they have committed a crime thus revealing a better, more valid picture of crime than the official one as non-convicted criminals are also included; • criminals may be more likely to talk about their offending to a researcher using a self-report study than a formal agent like the police as they know there are no repercussions and so feel more comfortable; • self-report studies are confidential therefore people may reveal crimes they have committed that they would not have otherwise admitted to; • self-report studies question who they ‘typical offender’ really is – they show, for example, that significant amounts of crime are committed by the middle class and women which challenges the accuracy of official measures of crime; • lots of data both qualitative and quantitative and can be gathered quickly and cheaply from different groups and large samples by using a self- report study; • other reasonable response. AGAINST • self-report studies may not include valid information as they are reliant on individuals admitting to crimes that they have committed; self-report studies can be criticised for a lack of representativeness as they are often carried out with young people – serious and white-collar crimes may therefore be omitted; • official statistics are collected by official agencies and thus are more credible and trustworthy; • official statistics show police counts of the total numbers of charges for different types of offences; • official statistics show court records of the total number of convictions for different crimes; • official statistics reveal patterns and trends in the social characteristics of offenders; • official statistics are collected and published annually therefore always show an up-to-date picture of crime; • official statistics allow for comparisons to be made e.g. between different areas, genders etc; 3(e) • many non-official measurements of crime such as self-report studies do not include victimless crimes such as drug use and therefore provide an incomplete picture of crime; • non-official measurements of crime such as self-report studies rely on the criminal or victim’s memory for its information and this may not be true – people forget things, exaggerate etc; • local victim surveys take an in-depth look at the experiences of victims which self-report studies do not, building up trust and so may get people to open up about what has happened to them e.g. feminist VS’s and sexual crime; • victim surveys may be more accurate than self-report studies as non- official ways of measuring crime as they ask the victims rather than the offenders who are more likely to tell the truth; • other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the extent to which self-report studies are the most accurate way of measuring crime. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. e.g. 'they find out about crimes the police don't know about'. Lower in the band (1-2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3-4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. self-report studies ask people what crimes they have committed. in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the extent to which self-report studies are the most accurate way of measuring crime. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely e.g. Not everyone reports a crime committed against them to the police so unofficial measures of crime like self-report studies are a good way to find out about these unknown crimes’ etc. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. 3(e) Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the extent to which self-report studies are the most accurate way of measuring crime. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘despite the OCS being recognised as the most easily accessible and generalisable source of information on crime in most societies, self-report studies are thought by many sociologists to produce a far more valid picture due to their uncovering of the dark figure of crime. They are both confidential and anonymous which means offenders are likely to be honest in their answers. It is from these sources that our understanding of who he typical criminal is in society has been challenged. Self-report studies reveal, for example, the large amount of crime committed by women and the middle classes.’. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the extent to which self-report studies are the most accurate measurement of crime. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of the usefulness of self-report studies as a measure of crime, citing some of the examples given.

Question 6

Who commits crime and why do they do it? This is a question often debated in sociology with different explanations being offered. Factors s…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘surveillance’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. watching people. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. monitoring individuals and groups by governments or other agents such as the police, collecting information with the intention of preventing crime. 3(b) Describe two sociological explanations for crime. Possible answers: • inadequate socialisation – not being taught the correct norms and values of society; • labelling theory – being stereotyped to be criminal and living up to this label (self-fulfilling prophecy); • Marxism – crime is resistance to the upper class exploitation of the working class in society; • material/relative deprivation – not having enough money to buy desired material goods leads to crime; • status frustration – Cohen – a lack of status in society may lead some people to turn to crime; • a search for thrills – postmodernism and edgework (Katz, Lyng); • peer pressure – particularly with young people; juvenile delinquency, gangs etc.; • being in a time of transition characterised by a lack of responsibility, e.g. functionalism and drift theory (Matza); • hegemonic masculinity – pressure on men to be the breadwinner and to prove their masculinity may lead to crime; • other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4 Candidates will describe two different sociological explanations for crime. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(c) Explain how punishment can reduce crime. Possible answers: • financial punishments – the fear of being penalised financially deters people from committing crimes; • incapacitation – punishments that do this prevent crimes from being committed and reduce re-offending rates; • methods of punishment that rehabilitate criminals, e.g. anger management, education and training can all reduce crime; • public humiliation – this can reduce crime through the embarrassment factor that people do not want to experience, either for themselves or for their families causing them not to commit crime; • punishments leading to criminal records can reduce crime as people are aware of the impact this is likely to have on their ability to gain employment; • restorative punishment – having to ‘face your victim’ can reduce crime as it demonstrates the consequences of criminal behaviour and breeds empathy for the victim; • conditional sentencing, e.g. tagging can reduce crime as it imposes restrictions on where people can go and what they can do, limiting the individual’s freedom and ability to commit crime; • capital punishment – the criminal is removed from society and therefore cannot commit crime – it can also act as a public deterrent; • exclusion – prisons take away freedom and thus stop individuals from seeing their families whilst also excluding and isolating them from society – the thought of this reduces/deters crime; • informal punishments, e.g. from family members, can reduce levels of crime as individuals do not want to let their families down and thus do not commit crime or stop committing it; • other reasonable response. 6 Candidates should show an understanding of how punishment can reduce crime. Examples of punishments may also be discussed but in order to be made relevant these need to be linked to the reduction of crime. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(c) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(d) Explain why some crimes are not reported to the police. Possible answers: • victimless crime – not every crime has a victim and therefore there is no motivation or need to report it to the police, e.g. drug taking; • if people are not aware that they are a victim of crime then they will not report it to the police, e.g. petty theft, child abuse; • certain communities have little trust in the police force and therefore will rarely report crimes to them; • in certain contexts, e.g. gangs, sub-cultures, prisons, crime is a normal part of life and therefore will not be reported to the police; • some crimes are very sensitive and personal, e.g. sexual crimes, abuse, and so victims may be reluctant to report these to the police – feminism; • Marxists talk about how invisible white-collar and corporate crime is as they believe the formal agents act to protect the higher classes from prosecution – companies often deal with these kind of crimes themselves and therefore they are not likely to be reported to the police; • if there is no motivation to report the crime, e.g. the victim does not think anything will be done about it because it is too petty, no insurance claim or there is too little evidence then it is likely to be reported to the police; • some new crimes such as cybercrimes are not reported to the police due to factors like embarrassment, not recognising the act as a crime etc.; • criminals as family members – crimes may not be reported when the criminal is part of a person’s family, they do not want to get them into trouble; • other reasonable response. 8 Candidates should show an understanding of a range of reasons why some crimes are not reported to the police. Points about why the police do not always record crimes or why not all crimes are prosecuted cannot be credited. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) To what extent is age the most influential factor in determining whether an individual commits crime? Arguments for: • according to the official crime statistics youths commit a high proportion of crime – police therefore target them which may lead to youths living up to the negative label and committing more crime (self-fulfilling prophecy); • some offences committed by young people are ‘status crimes’ – only criminal because of their age; • Matza’s drift theory says that petty offending is just a normal part of growing up so it’s not surprising young people commit a lot of these crimes; • postmodernists talk about the thrill of committing crimes as being particularly appealing to the young – edgework, Katz and Lyng; • functionalism – they see adolescence as a period of transition in which young people ‘test the boundaries’ thus making criminal/deviant behaviour quite likely; • young people are more likely than adults to be part of criminal sub- cultures and gangs – in these contexts committing crime is expected and often necessary to prove your loyalty, e.g. initiation ceremonies; • young people are more subject to peer pressure than older people and so may commit more crime; • young people are typically more ‘media technology savvy’ and thus have the skills to commit cybercrimes that the older generations do not; • young people typically have fewer responsibilities than older age groups and in this sense have less to lose from committing crime; • if young people are not successful in school they may resist authority and turn to a delinquent lifestyle for their status instead – Cohen (status frustration); 15 The ‘Against’ arguments may consider flaws in the ‘age is important’ arguments and/or consider other social factors as being more influential, e.g. gender, ethnicity and social class. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) • middle aged people may have opportunities to commit crime in their everyday work role, e.g. white-collar/corporate crimes; • functionalists believe that as older people disengage from society there will be less opportunities for them to commit crime; • the elderly do not fit Cicourel’s stereotype of the typical delinquent and so are unlikely to be targeted or suspected by the police meaning they are able to get away with crime; • other reasonable response. Arguments against: • not every young person commits crime and not every elderly person is law abiding – age may be a relevant factor but it does not determine criminality; • gender may be more important than age – males are under pressure to be masculine, to be the provider and to have high status – this may all lead to criminal behaviour; • ethnicity may be more important then age – resistance to racism may cause some ethnic minorities to commit crime as they feel marginalised from mainstream society; • social class may be more important than age – material deprivation and Merton’s strain theory may better explain why some people turn to crime; • age is more likely to intersect with other social factors rather than be a singular determining factor – for example, a high amount of crime is committed by young, working class males; • the social context needs to be considered – in Japan, for example, elderly crime is growing and the over 65 category now commit approximately 15% of all the country’s crimes due to Japan’s increasing economic problems; • the official crime statistics may hide the true amount of crime by age groups other than youths, e.g. Marxists believe most white-collar criminals do not get prosecuted – typically older adults; • other reasonable response. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 7

Who commits crime and why do they do it? This is a question often debated in sociology with different explanations being offered. Factors s…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘surveillance’? One mark for partial definition, e.g. watching people. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. monitoring individuals and groups by governments or other agents such as the police, collecting information with the intention of preventing crime. 3(b) Describe two sociological explanations for crime. Possible answers: • inadequate socialisation – not being taught the correct norms and values of society; • labelling theory – being stereotyped to be criminal and living up to this label (self-fulfilling prophecy); • Marxism – crime is resistance to the upper class exploitation of the working class in society; • material/relative deprivation – not having enough money to buy desired material goods leads to crime; • status frustration – Cohen – a lack of status in society may lead some people to turn to crime; • a search for thrills – postmodernism and edgework (Katz, Lyng); • peer pressure – particularly with young people; juvenile delinquency, gangs etc.; • being in a time of transition characterised by a lack of responsibility, e.g. functionalism and drift theory (Matza); • hegemonic masculinity – pressure on men to be the breadwinner and to prove their masculinity may lead to crime; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 4 Candidates will describe two different sociological explanations for crime. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(c) Explain how punishment can reduce crime. Possible answers: • financial punishments – the fear of being penalised financially deters people from committing crimes; • incapacitation – punishments that do this prevent crimes from being committed and reduce re-offending rates; • methods of punishment that rehabilitate criminals, e.g. anger management, education and training can all reduce crime; • public humiliation – this can reduce crime through the embarrassment factor that people do not want to experience, either for themselves or for their families causing them not to commit crime; • punishments leading to criminal records can reduce crime as people are aware of the impact this is likely to have on their ability to gain employment; • restorative punishment – having to ‘face your victim’ can reduce crime as it demonstrates the consequences of criminal behaviour and breeds empathy for the victim; • conditional sentencing, e.g. tagging can reduce crime as it imposes restrictions on where people can go and what they can do, limiting the individual’s freedom and ability to commit crime; • capital punishment – the criminal is removed from society and therefore cannot commit crime – it can also act as a public deterrent; • exclusion – prisons take away freedom and thus stop individuals from seeing their families whilst also excluding and isolating them from society – the thought of this reduces/deters crime; • informal punishments, e.g. from family members, can reduce levels of crime as individuals do not want to let their families down and thus do not commit crime or stop committing it; • any other reasonable response. 6 Candidates should show an understanding of how punishment can reduce crime. Examples of punishments may also be discussed, but in order to be made relevant these need to be linked to the reduction of crime. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(c) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(d) Explain why some crimes are not reported to the police. Possible answers: • victimless crime – not every crime has a victim and therefore there is no motivation or need to report it to the police, e.g. drug taking; • if people are not aware that they are a victim of crime then they will not report it to the police, e.g. petty theft, child abuse; • certain communities have little trust in the police force and therefore will rarely report crimes to them; • in certain contexts, e.g. gangs, sub-cultures, prisons, crime is a normal part of life and therefore will not be reported to the police; • some crimes are very sensitive and personal, e.g. sexual crimes, abuse, and so victims may be reluctant to report these to the police – feminism; • Marxists talk about how invisible white-collar and corporate crime is as they believe the formal agents act to protect the higher classes from prosecution – companies often deal with these kind of crimes themselves and therefore they are not likely to be reported to the police; • if there is no motivation to report the crime, e.g. the victim does not think anything will be done about it because it is too petty, no insurance claim or there is too little evidence then it is likely to be reported to the police; • some new crimes such as cybercrimes are not reported to the police due to factors like embarrassment, not recognising the act as a crime etc.; • criminals as family members – crimes may not be reported when the criminal is part of a person’s family, they do not want to get them into trouble; • any other reasonable response. 8 Candidates should show an understanding of a range of reasons why some crimes are not reported to the police. Points about why the police do not always record crimes or why not all crimes are prosecuted cannot be credited. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) To what extent is age the most influential factor in determining whether an individual commits crime? Arguments for: • according to the official crime statistics youths commit a high proportion of crime – police therefore target them which may lead to youths living up to the negative label and committing more crime (self-fulfilling prophecy); • some offences committed by young people are ‘status crimes’ – only criminal because of their age; • Matza’s drift theory says that petty offending is just a normal part of growing up so it’s not surprising young people commit a lot of these crimes; • postmodernists talk about the thrill of committing crimes as being particularly appealing to the young – edgework, Katz and Lyng; • functionalism – they see adolescence as a period of transition in which young people ‘test the boundaries’ thus making criminal/deviant behaviour quite likely; • young people are more likely than adults to be part of criminal sub- cultures and gangs – in these contexts committing crime is expected and often necessary to prove your loyalty, e.g. initiation ceremonies; • young people are more subject to peer pressure than older people and so may commit more crime; • young people are typically more ‘media technology savvy’ and thus have the skills to commit cybercrimes that the older generations do not; • young people typically have fewer responsibilities than older age groups and in this sense have less to lose from committing crime; • if young people are not successful in school,l they may resist authority and turn to a delinquent lifestyle for their status instead – Cohen (status frustration); 15 The ‘Against’ arguments may consider flaws in the ‘age is important’ arguments and/or consider other social factors as being more influential, e.g. gender, ethnicity and social class. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) • middle aged people may have opportunities to commit crime in their everyday work role, e.g. white-collar/corporate crimes; • functionalists believe that as older people disengage from society there will be less opportunities for them to commit crime; • the elderly do not fit Cicourel’s stereotype of the typical delinquent and so are unlikely to be targeted or suspected by the police meaning they are able to get away with crime; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • not every young person commits crime and not every elderly person is law abiding – age may be a relevant factor, but it does not determine criminality; • gender may be more important than age – males are under pressure to be masculine, to be the provider and to have high status – this may all lead to criminal behaviour; • ethnicity may be more important than age – resistance to racism may cause some ethnic minorities to commit crime as they feel marginalised from mainstream society; • social class may be more important than age – material deprivation and Merton’s strain theory may better explain why some people turn to crime; • age is more likely to intersect with other social factors rather than be a singular determining factor – for example, a high amount of crime is committed by young, working class males; • the social context needs to be considered – in Japan, for example, elderly crime is growing and the over 65 category now commit approximately 15% of all the country’s crimes due to Japan’s increasing economic problems; • the official crime statistics may hide the true amount of crime by age groups other than youths, e.g. Marxists believe most white-collar criminals do not get prosecuted – typically older adults; • any other reasonable response. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response, but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Question Answer Marks Guidance 3(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 8

According to the official crime statistics, some social groups are more likely than others to be convicted of crime. Some sociologists ques…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘youth culture’? 2 The way of life (norms and values) of young people between childhood and adulthood. One mark for partial definition, e.g. way of life. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. norms and values associated with young people. 3(b) Describe two reasons why someone might not report a crime to the 4 police. Possible answers: • embarrassment e.g. sexual crimes; • crime not perceived as criminal e.g. relating to health and safety legislation; • petty crimes – seen to be a waste of time, nothing will be done; • not aware a crime has been committed e.g. child neglect – the young person does not know that they have been a victim of crime • not able to report a crime e.g. small children that are victims; • fear of reprisals e.g. being scared of the criminal; • knowing the perpetrator and not wanting to get them into trouble e.g. crimes committed by family members/friends; • new crimes such as those to do with technology and the internet e.g. cybercrimes are so commonplace that they are just accepted as ‘normal’; • feeling you will not be listened to e.g. corrupt/untrustworthy police force; • acceptance of crime e.g. gang crime/criminal subcultures – where criminal behaviour is a normal part of everyday life; • crimes the victim is unaware of e.g. they think they have lost something; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how self-report studies can be used to measure crime. 6 Possible answers: • asks people what crimes they have committed and can draw patterns and trends from this; • completed anonymously in order to improve validity; • thought to be more valid than the official crime statistics as respondents do not have to worry about getting into trouble; • confidential questionnaires or interviews are used as the research method; • different methodologies – depending on the type of method used (e.g. questionnaires or interviews) researchers can find out qualitative and/or quantitative data in order to measure crime; • can reveal that significant numbers of crimes are committed by women and middle class people – a stark contrast to the official crime statistics; • often used to find out about the offending of young people; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of how self-report studies can be used to measure crime. Responses may be short and un/under developed. Candidates may be confused as to what is meant by self-report studies. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language, e.g. ‘asking people what crimes they have committed’. Band 2 [4–6 marks] A clear and accurate explanation showing good sociological knowledge and understanding of how self-report studies can be used to measure crime. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected. Candidates may refer to methodology, purpose, advantages etc. with examples. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one factor in a well-developed way or cover several factors in less detail. 3(d) Explain why some ethnic minority groups have higher official rates of 8 crime than other ethnic groups. Possible answers: • media stereotyping and moral panics; • police labelling and stereotyping leading to police targeting of ethnic minorities – differential stop and search rates, for example; • status frustration – ethnic minorities often have little status in mainstream society and so turn to crime and deviance to gain this illegitimately; • poverty/material deprivation – ethnic minorities are typically amongst the poorest groups in society; • resistance and rebellion – ethnic minorities may be resisting a perceived racist society that leaves them feeling marginalised e.g. BLM and protest groups; • gang culture – ethnic minorities may be more likely than other ethnic groups to be members of gangs and thus to commit criminal offences; • unemployment/lack of legitimate opportunity – ethnic minorities may find it harder to get work and thus turn to crime for the money they need (institutional racism); • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of why the official rates of offending for some ethnic minority groups are much higher than for other ethnic groups. Candidates may not fully understand what is meant by an ethnic minority. Responses may be short and undeveloped. e.g. ‘because the police think they are criminals’. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding of why the official rates of offending for some ethnic minority groups are much higher than for other ethnic groups. Candidates may say that e.g. ‘racism in society may be one reason for the higher rates of offending amongst ethnic minorities. If they struggle to find employment and are living in relative deprivation then criminal behaviour becomes more likely’. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed. 3(d) Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of why the official rates of offending for some ethnic minority groups are much higher than for other ethnic groups and will be well developed and explained. Candidates may discuss institutional racism, marginalisation, police targeting, labelling theory, moral panics etc. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately, overall. Answers will be well focused on the question and there will be a range of reasons presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent do punishments for committing crimes deter people 15 from criminal behaviour? Arguments for: • prisons/the penal system are shown in the media to be violent and oppressive places and thus the fear of being sent there puts people off committing crime; • the loss of freedom and autonomy associated with prison life deters people from committing crime as they do not want to be sent there; • the death penalty is seen by many to be the ultimate deterrent to crime; • curfews, electronic tags and restraining orders limit the movement and free will of individuals and thus persuade others not to commit crime; • corporal punishment and other physical punishments deter others from committing crime because of the pain involved; • community service can be seen to be humiliating and embarrassing and so is an effective way of deterring others from committing crime; • the media can be used as important agent of social control, showing the negative sides of punishment and reaching a huge audience – deterring them from committing crime; • family – some individuals may be scared of punishments in the family and so refrain from criminal behaviour; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • if punishments for crime were such an effective deterrent then we would not see high levels of offending in societies; • rewards/encouragement/positive sanctions may be a more effective means of deterrence than punishments; • many countries/states that still have the death penalty find that crime rates actually increase showing that this form of punishment does not deter people from committing crime; • the media often glamourise crime and punishment and provide the public with criminal role models – this may actually encourage crime rather than act as a deterrent; • zero tolerance/harsh punishments may aggravate and anger people and thus fail to act as a deterrent but instead lead to greater criminality; • if punishments are perceived to be unfair (i.e. racist/sexist/favour the rich etc.) then they will not deter people from committing crime; • the media is often accused of portraying prison life as ‘soft’ and ‘easy’ – televisions, pool tables, games consoles etc. – and thus this form of punishment is unlikely to act as a deterrent to crime; • lack of alternatives to crime – for some individuals poverty and deprivation may be so bad that no amount of punishment will deter them from crime – it’s a necessity; • any other reasonable response. 3(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of whether punishments for committing crimes deter others from criminal behaviour. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one-sided. e.g. punishments for crime scare other people from doing them. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points or provide a weak definition of key terms, e.g. punishments are how society sanctions people who have committed crimes, in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of whether punishments for committing crimes deter others from criminal behaviour. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited use of sociological terms or concepts. Candidates may discuss some reasons why punishments deter others from committing crimes i.e. fear, loss of freedom, humiliation etc. but responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided responses are unlikely. Lower in the band, the response will be rather narrow in the points covered and there will be little development. Higher in the band, more points will be covered and there will be limited development of some points. Alternatively, a list-like answer with little development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of whether punishments for committing crimes deter others from criminal behaviour. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. Candidates may be able to present a range of points to support the idea that punishments for committing crimes do deter others, but also be aware of some of the arguments against this i.e. criminal role models, increased crime rates, media distortion and exaggeration etc. There will be a two-sided response but this may be unbalanced. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of well-developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of points and clear focus on the question. 3(e) Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of whether punishments for committing crimes deter others from criminal behaviour. There will be a strong grasp of the argument as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. For example, candidates may say that whether punishments deter others from committing crime depends on the punishment and the individual. For example, marginalised groups in society may perceive punishments as unjust (i.e. racist policing) and thus not be deterred to commit criminal acts and protest. Others, however, may be scared at the thought of prison and the associated loss of freedom this will bring and so be successfully put off committing crimes etc. Responses will be two-sided and balanced. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent…?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion. Candidates should show consideration of points for and against the idea of whether punishments for committing crimes deter others from criminal behaviour, citing some of the examples given.

Question 9

The judicial system deals with a wide range of crimes such as murder, assault, internet crimes and petty crimes. Some sociologists argue th…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘judicial system’? 2 One mark for a partial definition e.g. the courts OR an agency of formal social control. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. the court system where laws are applied/punishments are given. 3(b) Describe two internet crimes. 4 Possible responses: • Computer – spreading computer viruses and malware to damage systems and networks; • Theft – fraud and identity theft online; • Scams – internet scams that aim to take money from people through false information; • Harassment – online stalking, hate crime, catfishing, trolling or cyber- bullying leading to mental/emotional harm of an individual; • Trade – using the internet to trade in illegal goods and drugs, often through the dark web e.g. arms trafficking; • Cyberterrorism – internet is used for deliberate, widespread attacks on computers and computer networks e.g. hacking into a government website; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how courts deal with the problem of crime. 6 Possible responses: • formally – the courts are a formal agent of social control and use standardised rules and procedures to decide on innocence or guilt; • punishment – the courts can impose punishments for those found guilty e.g. incarceration, fine, community service; • cases – the courts try those cases brought forward for prosecution, and assess the evidence presented by lawyers; • types of courts – magistrate (more trivial) and crown (more serious) courts deal with different types of crimes and offer punishments in line with these; • deterrence – harsh prison sentences can be given by the courts to deter others from committing crime; • rehabilitation – the courts issue punishments that aim to change the attitudes and behaviour of the criminals through community sentencing, education, rehab and training; • restorative justice – involving the offender and the victim meeting so the offender can pay their victim back if appropriate and apologise – victims are thus involved in the legal process; • media – court cases are reported in the media and this serves to reinforce what behaviour is considered acceptable in society, it can also act as a form of deterrence to crime for the audience; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why victim surveys can be criticised. 8 Possible responses: • sampling – victim surveys only ask a small sample of people and thus the answers are unlikely to be representative for most people’s experiences; • not all crimes are covered – they do not cover victimless crimes e.g. drug use or crimes against businesses/organisations. The picture of crime revealed is therefore skewed; • crimes against children – these are unlikely to be uncovered as children are not often respondents in these surveys; • sexual offences – these types of crimes are still very under-reported in victim surveys due to shame and embarrassment; • memory issues – victim surveys rely on the memories of victims which are notoriously unreliable – things can be forgotten or exaggerated; • lying – victim surveys cannot detect whether a respondent is lying as there are no cross-checks therefore the accuracy is unknown; • official statistics – these are a better method than victim surveys because they are validated figures from the government; • self-report studies – these are better because ‘victimless’ crimes can be covered (e.g. speeding or drug use) which victim surveys would not cover; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses may be underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent do prisons prevent crime? 15 Possible responses: Arguments for: • public safety – crime is prevented as criminals are locked away from society thus keeping the public safe; • deterrence – offenders are deterred from committing crime by the thought of going to prison thus preventing crime; • rehabilitation – rehab programmes and counselling are offered within prisons to give inmates alternatives to crime for the future; • education and training – prisoners can up-skill themselves whilst inside, gaining qualifications and work-based training which will all help them to secure jobs when released, so preventing crime; • work and responsibilities – in prison offenders learn that they are expected to work for their privileges and to take responsibility for their actions – this makes them better equipped to avoid crime once released back into society; • fear factor – prisoners are often afraid and fearful once inside a jail from the threat of attack and assault and thus will not commit crime when they are released as they are too scared to return; • social conformity – prisons force inmates to conform to authority and this socialisation can translate to the outside world on release, so preventing further crime form being committed; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • informal social control – prisons can never be effective at preventing crime if the individuals’ prior socialisation has not been effective; • university of crime – this is how prison is described by some. The idea that prisoners just learn how to be better criminals whilst they are locked away meaning prisons will not prevent further crimes; • crime within prisons – this is rife with bullying, assaults, drug dealing and physical attacks being a daily occurrence in most prisons; • re-offending rate – research indicates that most prisoners return to prison after they have been released – they continue to commit crime showing that prisons do not prevent it; • crimes not prosecuted – the prison system can only prevent crime if the criminals are behind bars – most criminals are never caught, particularly domestic abuse and corporate criminals; • gang crime – this is said to continue within prison with much rivalry, competition and violence occurring; • harsher punishments – some believe that the only way to prevent crime is to have harsher punishments available e.g. exile, the death penalty etc.; • labels and stereotypes (Becker) – prisons don’t prevent crime as once an individual has been labelled as a ‘criminal’ or an ‘ex-con’ they are stigmatised and often unable to get employment, meaning turning to crime and returning to prison becomes more likely; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. 3(e) Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 10

In most societies the police are employed to control and prevent crime by using a range of sanctions and strategies. Despite this, people w…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘sanctions’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. a prison sentence. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. punishment or penalties for behaviour not conforming to norms and values. 3(b) Describe two problems with using self-report studies to find out how 4 much crime is committed. Possible responses: • Validity – how certain can the researcher be that people have told the truth about the amount of crime committed e.g. exaggerating what they have done or not admitting to crimes; • Representativeness – many self-report studies are administered to adolescents which means not all crimes committed are covered e.g. corporate and white-collar crimes; • Generalisability – due to the issues with self-report studies not being representative the results from them cannot be generalised therefore many sociologists question how useful they really are; • Relevance – a lot of self-report studies ask about quite trivial crimes e.g. not paying fares on public transport, therefore they may test honesty more than criminality; • Gender – self-report studies question whether men really are much more likely than women to engage in criminal behaviour but many sociologists believe this may be due to the focus on more trivial crimes and acts of deviance rather than female criminality; • Age – self-report studies are often used with youths who may experience peer pressure to exaggerate their criminality in order to maintain their status and image with their peers; • Any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how agencies of social control can prevent females from 6 committing crimes. Possible responses: • parental curfews/rules – girls are typically given earlier curfews and may not be allowed outside alone, this makes committing crime more difficult; • differential gendered socialisation – Oakley – boys and girls are socialised very differently, girls to be passive and gentle, boys to be active and tough – this effectively controls females not to commit crime e.g. canalisation; • workplace – men and women typically work in very different jobs thus women have far less access to employment that would make white- collar/corporate crime easier; • education – hidden curriculum – females learn their gender expectations and roles through the norms and values that are encouraged at school and this effectively controls them to not commit crime; • media – the media demonises female criminals e.g. Myra Hindley and thus deters females from committing crime for fear of the consequences and negative public labels; • peer group – female peer groups tend to be more pro-school and conformist than males and therefore studying hard and working towards legal goals and deferred gratification are encouraged – this reduces levels of criminality; • prisons – can incarcerate females and separate them from their family, meaning they are temporarily unable to commit crime; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why people who commit corporate crimes are often not 8 prosecuted. Possible responses: • recording rates – these types of crimes are less likely to be reported to the authorities and so are rarely prosecuted; • stereotypical offenders – corporate criminals do not match the stereotypes held by the police of the typical offender (Cicourel) and therefore individuals are more likely to get away with crimes; • avoiding publicity – prosecutions for corporate crimes are less likely as companies want to avoid negative publicity that a criminal investigation would lead to therefore the perpetrators are often not prosecuted; • ruling class definitions – crime is defined by the ruling class and therefore many actions of the ruling class are not defined as crimes – if they are they are usually dealt with less severely than working class crimes meaning prosecution rates are less; • health and safety breaches – Tombs and Whyte – only 5% of these are investigated by the police therefore prosecutions are very rare; • multinational corporations’ power – in cases that attract media/public attention, one employee often takes the blame for the crime (is scapegoated) while the company itself is not charged – prosecutions of all those involved are therefore unlikely; • power – those committing corporate crime are often part of the powerful elite with much social and economic capital (Bourdieu) – social networks can thus be used in order to negotiate justice and avoid prosecution; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well- focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent are the police effective in controlling crime? 15 Possible responses: Arguments for: • police presence – this deters criminals and keeps residents safe; • Marxists – police control crime effectively to benefit the ruling class as they are often used to control protests and demonstrations; • military policing – this is effective as the fear of force and weaponry keeps social order in urban areas; • community policing – working with and alongside members of the public is effective as the public trust and will report information to the police; • international cooperation – policing across borders is increasingly effective as police forces in different countries use digital technology to work together in the fight against crime; • surveillance – the police use surveillance in order to improve their effectiveness at controlling crime e.g. CCTV, ICT monitoring and tracking, undercover work, tracking credit cards etc.; • zero tolerance policing – the police acted against minor offences to send out the message that no form of criminality would be accepted in the community – this has seen big drops in the crime rate; • functionalism – the police help to maintain social solidarity and social order through upholding the law; • specialist units – the police have developed their teams to be more specialist in many areas which has meant more successful and effective policing takes place e.g. sexual crimes, gangs, drugs, paedophilia etc.; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • stereotypes, typical offender (Cicourel) – the police label certain social groups as more likely to be criminal than others and target these groups. This means others are able to get away with crime; • institutional racism – the McPherson Report identified that racist practices and assumptions run through the police force so minority ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested/prosecuted than others; • Pollak – chivalry thesis – some sociologists believe that women are able to get away with crime as they are not perceived as capable of many types of crimes; • deviancy amplification – actions of the police e.g. stop and search, BLM protests, may lead to resentment and behaviour the police can define as criminal; • the dark figure of crime – research shows that most criminals get away with their crimes and are not prosecuted, this is not effectively controlling crime; • feminism – victims of abuse and sexual attacks – these victims would not see the police as effective as it has been shown that convictions are few and far between; • Marxism – resistance – e.g. the London Riots 2011, Egyptian protests 2013, global BLM protests 2020/2021 – the police are not effective at controlling crime as instead of focusing on serious criminals they focus on activism/protest movements, causing social unrest and increasing social injustices rather than preventing crime; 3(e) • state crimes – the police are not effective at preventing these crimes as they are seen to be ‘tools of the state’ and thus legitimatise the horrific crimes e.g. war crimes, genocide etc.; • crimes by the police – the police themselves commit crimes and police who do commit crimes are rarely prosecuted; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well-developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 11

Crime rates are measured in different ways by sociologists and governments. Two examples of how crime can be measured are official crime st…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘official crime statistics’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. how many people commit crime; Two marks for clear definition, e.g. government figures on the numbers of crimes committed and the offenders. 3(b) Describe two punishments for crime in modern industrial societies. 4 Possible answers:  incarceration −prisons are used to lock criminals away and to remove their freedom;  death penalty − in some MIS’s the most serious crimes can be punished by death e.g. USA;  community sentencing − being required to give something back to the community against whom the criminal offended e.g. litter picking;  electronic tagging − being monitored by the formal agencies and having personal freedoms restricted as punishment for crime e.g. curfews;  ostracism − being shunned and ignored within a community because of the crime committed;  exile − being sent away from the community due to the crime committed;  fines − criminals must pay a monetary sum in order to ‘pay for’ their crime;  rehabilitation − counselling or psychological or addiction services may be a compulsory part of a criminal’s programme of rehabilitation and punishment;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how crimes can be committed online. 6 Possible answers:  cybercrimes − crimes involving the use of new technologies − these are often the digital equivalent of crimes that existed previously e.g. online frauds and scams;  new technology specific crimes − new crimes have been created with the advent of digital technology e.g. catfishing, phishing etc.;  online crimes can be committed by individuals, groups, organisations or by the state;  targeting victims through their computer − e.g. infecting PCs or networks or security systems with a virus;  easy to get away with as difficult to police − cybercrimes are notoriously difficult to police and control e.g. the criminals may have far more advanced technological understanding than the formal agents and so find committing online crimes easy;  global − cybercrimes tend to cross borders and are thus global in scale e.g. ‘sweetheart scams’, fraud etc.;  illegal file sharing − with media now being both digital and global, it has become much easier to infringe copyright and to download/stream/file share illegally;  organised crime − this is typically coordinated through the internet e.g. human trafficking, drug dealing etc.;  cyberterrorism − the internet is used for widespread, deliberate attacks on computers and computer networks e.g. hacking of government sites;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well−developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why crime rates for some ethnic groups are higher than for 8 others. Possible answers:  labelling theory − Becker − some ethnic groups are stereotyped as ‘criminal’ and are thus targeted by the police − they are therefore more likely to be caught;  institutional racism − if society and/or organisations are inherently racist, then some ethnic groups will not have the same opportunities as others and will be treated more harshly by the formal agents e.g. the McPherson Report UK;  demographics − most crime is committed by young people; some ethnic groups have a higher proportion of young people than the majority group so more crime would be expected of them;  resistance − if racialised social inequalities exist within a society then some minority ethnic groups are likely to feel disillusioned with society and turn to crime as a form of resistance;  gangs − gangs tend to form along racial lines; those ethnic groups most heavily involved in gang lifestyles are most likely to commit crimes;  relative deprivation − Lea and Young − when minority ethnic groups share the same values and aspirations as wider society but have fewer legitimate means to achieve them, these groups may feel marginalised and so turn to crime in order to achieve these goals illegally;  greater economic success − those ethnic groups who have economic capital within a society are least likely to commit crime;  socialisation and community involvement − those ethnic groups who have strong bonds of attachment (Hirschi) to their community/religion/ family are least likely to commit crime;  status frustration − Cohen − those ethnic groups with lower educational qualifications who have not achieved well in education are most likely to turn to crime to get status in a different way;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4−6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. 3(d) Band 3 [7−8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well−developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well−focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent can self−report studies provide an accurate 15 measurement of crime? Possible answers: Arguments for:  confidential − as self−report studies (SRS) are carried out confidentially, respondents may be more likely to tell the truth as they do not worry about being exposed as a criminal;  dark figure − SRSs can find out about crimes that do not feature in the official crime statistics (OCS) and so can produce a more valid understanding of crimes committed;  who are the criminals − SRSs can challenge the notion of the ‘typical offender’ as their results demonstrate that all social groups commit crime e.g. greater numbers of female and middle class criminals are revealed in SRSs than in the OCS so giving a more accurate picture of crime;  the use of self–report data is now well established in the study of crime and deviance − such as sexual deviance, problem drinking, and mental disorders. It is thought to offer useful additional information to provide a more accurate measurement;  self−report studies try to overcome the socially constructed nature of the official crime statistics by considering unreported and unrecorded crimes in their research to reach a more accurate conclusion;  quantitative data − the ‘tick list’ format of SRSs allows for a large sample to be questioned and for patterns and trends in criminality to be easily identified and compared in order to improve accuracy of understanding;  victimless crimes − self−report studies can investigate victimless crimes e.g. illegal drugs, prostitution, which will not be revealed in official measures of crime and so produces a more accurate picture of crime;  longitudinal − SRSs can be longitudinal in nature, allowing researchers to document criminal behaviour over time and to more accurately understand criminality than a snapshot picture provided by official sources;  any other reasonable response. Arguments against:  not admitting to crimes − there is no guarantee that respondents answering SRSs will tell the truth, this could compromise their validity;  over−exaggerating criminality − as SRSs are sometimes done in a group environment there is a risk that respondents may exaggerate the crimes they have committed to impress their peers, so reducing accuracy;  memory − SRSs rely on participant’s memories which may not be accurate; 3(e)  sample − many SRSs are carried out on young people which is not representative of all criminals and therefore cannot be generalised − white−collar crimes, for example, are not covered − this isn’t an accurate picture of crime;  relevance − some SRSs ask about trivial crimes e.g. travelling on public transport without a ticket, this does not really provide researchers with an accurate picture of crime;  lack of reliability − responses to statements may depend upon the social characteristics of the researcher if completed via an interview, meaning the data could be unreliable and inaccurate in terms of the picture of crime presented;  victim surveys − asking the victims of crime what crimes they have been victims of is likely to be more valid than asking the offenders as there is less incentive to lie/mislead;  official crime statistics − as these are carried out by trained, formal and trustworthy agencies these should be the most accurate picture of crime;  combination − methodological pluralism − no one method provides ‘the most accurate’ picture of crime, it depends on what crimes you are investigating and what you want to find out about − perhaps combining measurements will provide the most accurate measurement;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1−4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one−sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5−8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list−like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two−sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list−like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. 3(e) A one−sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9−12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well−developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two−sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13−15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well−developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two−sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 12

There are many different reasons why individuals commit crime. Sociologists research crime to understand these reasons and to investigate t…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘labelling’? 2 One mark for partial definition, e.g. stereotyping people OR Becker’s theory. Two marks for clear definition, e.g. how acts and people are defined as deviant by the social reaction of others to their behaviour. 3(b) Describe two urban crimes. 4 Possible answers: • rioting – social disorder and unrest e.g. London riots, Egyptian Revolution; 2011; • looting – stealing goods from somewhere e.g. shops/warehouses; • gang crime – turf wars, often leading to knife/gun crime; • mugging/street robbery – street attacks with a financial incentive; • shoplifting – stealing from shops, often sold on to others; • theft from city centre shops/banks – typically for financial gain; • violence/assault – may be associated with alcohol and bars and/or weapons; • drug dealing – organised crime where illegal drugs are bought and sold; • knife crime – often associated with youths and sometimes with gangs; • white collar crime – crimes committed against companies and usually carried out for personal benefit e.g. a bank clerk stealing cash whilst at work; • corporate crime – committed by companies or their workers against the public e.g. fake goods – typically found in cities; • bank robbery – usually occurs in cities by armed gangs; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how victim surveys are used to measure crime. 6 Possible answers:  asks a sample of respondents what crimes they have been a victim of, typically in the last year – starts to reveal the hidden/dark figure of crime (unreported);  often use interviews to find out the information and this is typically in the respondents own home to increase rapport and validity;  victim surveys are sometimes used to challenge the official picture of crime and victimisation in order for sociologists to have a better/more valid understanding;  anonymity/confidentiality – because names are not revealed in this method of finding out about victims of crime, respondents are more likely to take part and to answer truthfully;  CSEW/BCS – example of a national survey that looks for patterns and trends in victimisation in the UK using a representative, large sample and standardised questions (quantitative data);  local victim surveys – e.g. Islington survey – look to find out about the experience of being a victim of crime in a local area in a more detailed way, often associated with Left Realism and Lea and Young (unstructured interviews – qualitative data);  feminist victim surveys – e.g. Walklate – focus on crimes where women have been victims and which are very under–reported, to understand the impact and effect through unstructured interviews (qualitative data);  victim surveys are now used in the UK to complement the official picture of crime and are therefore published alongside official statistics, this offers a broader, more accurate measurement;  other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1 – 3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4 – 6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well–developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why crimes are not always reported to the police. 8 Possible answers:  too trivial – people tend not to report crimes they believe to be too trivial as they don’t think the police can/will do anything to help;  no benefit to victim – it is the crimes where the victim benefits from reporting them that are done so most regularly e.g. where a crime number is needed/for an insurance claim etc;  private matters – some crimes aren’t reported as they’re seen as private matters between the victim and the offender e.g. gang or family crime;  no desire for punishment – sometimes crimes aren’t reported as the victim doesn’t want the offender to be punished e.g. domestic abuse/coercion cases;  fear of reprisal – sometimes crimes aren’t reported as the victim is afraid of what will happen;  victimless crimes – some crimes are not reported as there is no feeling of being a victim;  embarrassment – crimes of a sexual nature are very under–reported because of the sensitive nature of the topic and the unwillingness of the victim to relive the crime again;  distrust of the police – in communities where the police are not trusted then crimes are unlikely to be reported e.g. traveler communities;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1 – 3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4 – 6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7 – 8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well–developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well–focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent can a lack of status in society explain criminal 15 behaviour? Possible answers: Arguments for: • status frustration – Cohen – young people who do not get status from educational success in school may turn to crime in order to gain it; • crime statistics – these clearly show that it is those people with less status and economic capital who are most likely to commit crime; • crisis of masculinity – Mac an Ghaill – unemployment amongst men in traditional labour jobs is high in some areas so they turn to crime in order to maintain their masculine status of provider; • Lea and Young, marginalisation – people with a lack of status in society feel socially excluded and so turn to crime as a form of resistance; • racism – in some societies minority ethnic groups are given less status than the majority group and suffer racial discrimination, they may turn to crime in order to gain that status; • riots – research shows that rioters are often young people with lower levels of status in society who riot to express their dissatisfaction with some aspect of society and call for social change e.g. BLM; the Arab Spring etc.; • stop and search rates – research shows that some social groups are disproportionately targeted by the police for stop and search and these are typically lower status groups – crime occurs as they assert their frustrations with these inequalities; • juvenile delinquency – young people, low on status, commit most crimes in society but Matza (drift theory) says once they achieve status as they grow older they will also grow out of criminality; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against: • not everyone with a lack of status turns to criminal behaviour, most people conform to the law; • inadequate socialisation – Murray – underclass values mean that children are not well socialised and so turn to criminal behaviour; • labelling theory – stereotypes and perceptions of the ‘typical delinquent’ may be a better explanation for crime; • white collar crime – these criminals do have status (money and power) in society yet still commit crime (Marxism); • relative deprivation – it may not be a lack of status but a lack of money that causes crime (Marxism) – instrumental crime; • masculinity – the peer pressure to be masculine (hegemonic, Connell) may be the reason for some males to become criminal; • postmodernism – the thrills and excitement of crime may be the reason people commit it e.g. joyriding, not a lack of status; • deviancy amplification – police targeting of some social groups may become so frustrating that it leads to clashes with the police and more crime; • lack of opportunity/low educational qualifications – in some areas of high unemployment there may not be enough well–paid jobs available therefore some people turn to crime to find an illegitimate opportunity structure instead (Cloward and Ohlin), not status; 3(e) • feminism – domestic violence – this is typically committed by men (who are known to have higher status in society) which throws doubt upon the idea of a lack of status leading to crime; • media – imitation and role modelling may lead to some crimes being committed, e.g. by the young, rather than a lack of status; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1 – 4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one– sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5 – 8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list–like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two– sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list–like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one–sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9 – 12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well–developed, focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two–sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13 – 15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well–developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two–sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 13

Although there is a dark figure of crime, individuals can learn a lot about crime and deviance from the media. Crime and deviance can be di…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘master status’? 2 One mark for a partial definition, e.g. being seen as criminal. Two marks for a clear definition, e.g. a social position that overrides all others and becomes the way the individual sees themself and how others see them. 3(b) Describe two ways capitalism may cause crime. 4 Possible answers: • frustration – workers may be so frustrated by the way they are treated and exploited at work by their bosses that they take their anger out on their partners at home – domestic violence; • consumerism – capitalism has created a society where status and identity are defined by material possessions, the pressure to get these may lead to crime; • relative deprivation and marginalisation – Lea and Young – comparing oneself to others and realising what you have not got may lead to resentment and anger that is demonstrated through crime; • unequal wages – capitalism exists to make maximum profit so bosses will pay workers as little as they can – this may mean some people turn to crime to buy what they want; • competition – capitalism operates on a ‘divide and rule’ system that puts workers in competition with one another – greed can lead to crime; • financial assets – the capitalist system is based on money/profit and the ownership of private property, therefore those who lack this may resort to crime as a way of getting it; • white-collar/corporate crime – individuals may commit such crimes due to the pressures of the capitalist system in jobs where status and position are linked to making as much money as possible; • any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how crime can be different to deviance. 6 Possible answers: • crimes are always illegal as they break the law, deviance is not always illegal as it’s about breaking social norms; • crimes are typically looked upon negatively by society whereas many acts of deviance are not e.g. ‘cheeking’ the teacher in the classroom can be seen as a way to gain peer group status; • crimes are typically dealt with by formal agents and processes of social control, deviance is more likely to be dealt with by the informal agents and processes of social control; • crimes may be more serious than acts of deviance e.g. murder vs anti- social behaviour; • consequences for crimes tend to be more severe than for acts of deviance e.g. going to prison is more severe than being told off; • criminality is more likely to be universally agreed upon than deviance which is far more likely to be culturally specific and relative; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why there is a dark figure of crime. 8 Possible answers: • crime is not known about – if the victim does not realise they have been a victim of crime then the crime will be unlikely to be reported to the police e.g. fraud; • victimless crime – some crimes do not have a victim to report the crime e.g. drug users, prostitution etc.; • some crimes are not reported to the police due to their sensitive nature – domestic abuse and sexual crimes are notoriously under-reported for this reason; • some crimes are not reported to the police due to lack of trust – the community may not have good relations with the police or may have a fear of reprisals from the criminal; • white-collar crimes – these are a large dark figure because they rarely come to the attention of the criminal justice system – Marxism ‘selective law enforcement’; • some crimes are not recorded by the police – they may think they are too petty or not likely to be solved or may consider the victim unreliable e.g. a gang member, a prostitute etc.; • police discretion – police officers can decide whether the reported crime / the person committing a criminal act needs to be formally sanctioned – if not then the crime will not make it into the statistics; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent does the media influence ideas about crime and 15 deviance? Possible answers: Arguments for: • media as a source of knowledge – most people have little direct contact with crime so they rely on the media for their knowledge and ideas; • media stereotypes – fear of crime – despite crime rates falling, research shows that people think crime rates are rising and crime is a serious problem – this has been caused by the media; • unusual crimes – it is those crimes that are most unusual and dramatic that feature the most in the media (news values) – this persuades people to believe that they are more common than they really are; • criminals – the media sets the agenda for who the public see as criminals and this tends to be based on stereotyping e.g. Cicourel’s ‘typical delinquent’; • moral panics (Cohen) – the media use sensationalism and exaggeration to create moral panics on crime – this causes public concern and puts pressure on the formal agencies to do something about it; • folk devils – the media represents criminals as different from ‘normal people’ – this creates a stigma about who commits crime; • glamourising criminality – critics comment on the power of the media to use criminal role models to imply that crime can be positive – this may influence the audience’s ideas; • consumer society – the focus in the media on consumption and acquiring material possessions may influence the audience to consider criminality as a means to acquiring these goods and status symbols; • any other reasonable response. Arguments against • official statistics – it is not the media but the official crime statistics that influence how people think about crime – they reveal the patterns and trends in criminality and the media just report on these; • police – the actions of the police in terms of targeting, police presence, stop and search rates etc. are more likely to influence the public’s perception of crime than the media; • courts – with the power to sentence criminals, it is the courts that determine how the public think about crime and deviance as their sentences portray what crimes are considered the most serious; • government – the government set a country’s laws and determine what is acceptable and what is not, this then affects how the public will think; • variety of media forms – the media exists in so many different forms and styles today that representations of crime and criminals will also be very diverse, thus the power to affect people’s ideas may be limited; • too deterministic – whether the media influences people’s ideas about crime will depend upon the individual – we do not have to believe everything that is in the media (selective media models); • family – as the primary agent of socialisation, the family teaches individuals their norms and values and what to think about crime and deviance not the media – this formative socialisation is crucial; • religion – if an individual is religious it is likely that these beliefs are more influential than the media in forming ideas about crime and deviance; 3(e) • peer group pressure – many peer groups and sub-cultures engage in deviant behaviour and there is lots of pressure to conform to group norms, this is where many young people learn their ideas about crime and deviance from, not the media; • education – schools encourage young people to conform to society’s norms and values and sanction those that do not – this process is more effective at influencing ideas about crime and deviance than the media; • any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two- sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well-developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent.?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 14

There are many different types of crime, for example cybercrime and urban crime. Sociologists debate why some social groups commit more cri…

Accepted Answer

3(a) What is meant by the term ‘cybercrime’? 2 One mark for partial definition e.g. online fraud. Two marks for clear definition e.g. crimes involving the use of new technologies like the internet. 3(b) Describe two features of the dark figure of crime. 4 Possible answers:  unreported crimes – not all crimes are reported to the police by the public due to fear of reprisals by the perpetrators e.g. in communities where crime is rife;  unreported crimes – not all crimes are reported to the police by the public because the criminals are friends or family members and this leads to conflicted loyalties;  unrecorded crimes – the police do not record all crimes that are reported to them due to police discretion and pressure on the police to ‘clear up’ crimes (coughing and cuffing);  sexual crimes – these are notoriously underreported due to victim embarrassment and a culture whereby sexual crimes rarely result in a conviction;  recognition of a crime taking place – often people are unsure if they have actually been the victim of crime e.g. online crimes/scams therefore they are never reported;  any other reasonable response. One mark for each point correctly identified (up to maximum of two). One mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of two). 3(c) Explain how the findings from victim surveys may not be accurate. 6 Possible answers:  memory – victim surveys rely on respondent’s memories which may be faulty – this reduces their validity;  cannot cover all types of crimes – they do not usually cover victimless crimes e.g. drug use, crimes against children and crimes against organisations. Therefore, they only give a partial picture of the victims of crimes;  national picture – most victim surveys are completed using respondents from all over a nation – this does not show the impact or seriousness of crime in localised areas of a country;  quantitative data – the most common type of victim surveys are large scale and produce quantitative data e.g. the CSEW or BCS – these cannot explore the responses or feelings of victims to crime;  local victim surveys – these are carried out in a specific local area and therefore cannot be representative of the wider population so making generalisations impossible e.g. the Islington survey;  feminist victim surveys – e.g. Walklate – these can be criticised for focusing only on sexual crimes and not considering the impact of other kinds of crimes on victims;  underreported crimes – some types of crimes e.g. sexual crimes, are still thought to be underreported in victim surveys due to people not wanting to talk to strangers about such an intimate, personal experience;  any other reasonable response. Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. Responses may be short and un/underdeveloped. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point, but there may be a tendency towards simplistic answers, engaging with sociological ideas without using sociological language. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will have clear and accurate explanation, showing good sociological knowledge and understanding. Sociological terms and concepts should be expected and explained. At the bottom of the band, the range of points covered may be narrow or lack detail. Higher in the band, answers will cover more than one point in a well-developed way or cover several points in less detail. 3(d) Explain why inadequate socialisation can be linked to crime. 8 Possible answers:  decline in the nuclear family – New Right sociologists claim that since the nuclear family has started to decline so socialisation in families has become less effective in terms of inculcating the necessary moral values and this has led to increases in crime;  single-parent families – Murray claims the lack of a male role model to discipline children has led to inadequate socialisation of boys in families and to increased levels of male crime;  decline in marriage – as cohabitation and other alternatives to marriage have become more normalised, some sociologists claim that socialisation has become inadequate as the family is seen to be less stable and certain – this leads to crime;  underclass values – Murray claims that the formation of the underclass who inadequately socialise their children to be work shy, feckless and welfare dependent has led to increases in crime as they desire material items but are unwilling to work to get them;  official crime statistics – these indicate high rates of offending from families with so-called ‘inadequate socialisation’ i.e. the poor and those from single parent families;  longitudinal studies – these typically show a link between poor parenting and/or children living in care (inadequate socialisation) and criminal offending;  Hirschi – functionalist Hirschi claims that offending occurs in those individuals who have weak bonds of attachment i.e. those who have been inadequately socialised;  illegitimate opportunity structure – Cloward and Ohlin - their research shows that crime flourishes in areas where it is normalised suggesting that the socialisation process is inadequate as it makes crime seem an acceptable ‘career’;  feral children – research indicates that children who are not adequately socialised can become feral and act in immoral ways such as committing crime;  any other reasonable response. 3(d) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–3 marks] Answers in this band will show only a limited awareness of the question. A tendency to description is likely. Responses may be short and undeveloped and points stated without explanation. Sociological terms and concepts are unlikely to be used. At the bottom of the band (1 mark), expect one weak point. Higher in the band (2–3 marks), candidates may offer more than one weak point. Band 2 [4–6 marks] Answers in this band will show basic sociological knowledge and understanding. Responses maybe underdeveloped and lacking in range. At the bottom of the band, candidates are unlikely to use sociological terms and concepts accurately. Higher in the band, candidates may be beginning to use sociological terms and concepts with greater accuracy. However, some aspects of the answer may only be partially developed/explained. Band 3 [7–8 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding and will be well-developed and explained. Sociological terms and concepts will be used accurately overall. Answers will be well-focused on the question and there will be a range of points presented. At the top of the band explanations will be clear throughout. 3(e) To what extent is policing biased? 15 Possible answers: Arguments for:  police discretion – the police can decide whether to arrest someone and what to charge them with. This is often based on stereotypical assumptions of who the criminal is (Cicourel, ‘Typical Delinquent’);  police targeting – the police have biased ideas about where crime will take place (urban, deprived areas) and deploy resources accordingly – this means the lower social classes are more likely to be caught committing crime than the higher classes;  stop and search rates – these are much higher for some social groups than others e.g. high rates for the young, the poor and ethnic minorities, showing how policing is biased;  type of crime – the police are subject to pressure to crack down on crime and get good clear up rates – this means they tend to focus their attention on the crimes that are relatively easy to solve, meaning business and white-collar crime is not particularly targeted – this of course demonstrates bias;  Marxism – the police are seen to be a tool for the ruling class, they ignore elite/state/corporate crimes and instead repress the working class into a state of submission and conformity – police are part of the repressive state apparatus and are therefore biased;  feminism – this theory says policing favours men over women when it comes to the extremely low arrest, investigation and conviction rates for sexual crimes e.g. rape, harassment;  chivalry factor – Pollak – this theory suggests that the police are biased in favour of females, believing them to be incapable of serious crime due to the long-standing stereotypes of passive femininity;  moral panics – the media sensationalises some crimes and creates folk devils of who the criminals are, e.g. young, black males – this diverts attention away from the real criminals (the upper class) and creates stereotypes for the public;  selective law enforcement – actions of the working class are criminalised and so the ruling class are less likely to have their criminal actions defined as such, e.g. the police focus on street crime rather than corporate crime and so are biased;  corporate crime - Tombs and Whyte – only 5% of workplace crimes involving breaking laws on safety at work that result in serious injury or death are investigated by the police. This compares to an investigation rate of over 90% for crimes involving serious injury outside of the workplace;  ethnicity – investigations into police racism and prejudice has shown that some ethnic minority groups are over-policed. This was demonstrated in the London riots of 2011 and in recent global BLM protests and examples of police brutality;  any other reasonable response. 3(e) Arguments against:  official crime statistics – the police simply act upon the information they are given by the official records which shows that some social groups e.g. the ruling class do not commit much crime (functionalism);  police wear body cameras/CCTV – surveillance is used to ensure the police act fairly and therefore prevents cases of bias;  police themselves are being prosecuted for wrongdoings – if members of the police commit crimes they are now arrested, charged and often prosecuted, showing that policing is not biased e.g. Sarah Everard murder case;  individuals not the institution – every profession will contain biased individuals, e.g. racists, but this does not mean that the police force itself as an institution is biased;  harm – white-collar crimes are less likely to cause harm to the victim and therefore it is only right that the police focus their attention on street crimes, this is what the public want as it’s a source of fear. This is not bias, it’s responding to public demand;  area – the police are not deliberately targeting certain areas, they are acting on information that tells them where crime is most likely to be committed – this, not selective law enforcement and bias, is why they are found in deprived rather than higher class areas;  ethnicity – the police have been accused of over-policing ethnic minorities however records and witness statements suggest that some ethnic minorities are more likely to be criminal therefore the police are simply doing their job e.g. focus on black knife crime in the UK;  corporate criminals – when information is forthcoming the police can and do investigate large corporations and powerful groups and ensure that the criminals are arrested and charged, e.g. 2022 members of the UK Conservative party charged with breaking Covid-19 rules;  social movements – the police back changes in society that see the focus of policing shifting e.g. #metoo saw the arrests of powerful male sex-crime perpetrators and demonstrates that policing is not biased;  regulation and the law – the police are agents for the law and ensure it is followed fairly; were they to police in an unfair way then they would be subject to arrest and prosecution themselves;  police personnel – the police have responded to criticisms of their actions by trying to ensure greater representation amongst their ranks from all social groups in order to create a fairer police force e.g. recruitment drives of ethnic minority and female police officers to remove bias;  any other reasonable response. 3(e) Band 0 [0 marks] No creditworthy response. Band 1 [1–4 marks] Answers in this band may be vague and largely based on common sense showing limited knowledge of the debate. Use of sociological terms or concepts is very unlikely. Responses may be short, undeveloped and one- sided. Lower in the band (1–2 marks), expect one or two weak points. Higher in the band (3–4 marks) candidates may offer more than two points and provide a weak definition of key terms in the question. Band 2 [5–8 marks] In this band candidates will show some basic knowledge of the debate. Alternatively, they may offer an answer which is list-like in nature but there will be no real attempt to assess the issues raised by the question. There may be limited/some use of sociological terms or concepts. Responses may be underdeveloped and lack range. Answers may be simplistic and two-sided or only cover one side of the debate. Lower in the band, the response may be rather narrow in the points covered and there may be some development. Higher in the band, more points are likely to be covered with some development. Alternatively, a list-like answer with some development covering both sides of the argument may score up to 8 marks. A one-sided answer cannot score higher than 8 marks. Band 3 [9–12 marks] Answers in this band will show good sociological knowledge and understanding of the debate. Sociological terms and concepts will be used with greater accuracy and/or frequency. For the most part, answers will be well- developed, focused on the questions and there will be a range of points presented. There will be a two-sided response but it may lack range on one side. At the bottom of the band, candidates may provide a narrower range of developed points. At the top of the band, expect a wider range of developed points and clear focus on the question. Band 4 [13–15 marks] Answers in this band will show excellent knowledge and understanding of the debate. There will be a strong grasp of the arguments as well as accurate and frequent use of sociological terms and concepts. Answers will be well- developed, clearly focused on the question and discuss a wide range of points. Responses will be two-sided and have a range of points on each side. At the bottom of the band (13 marks), the answer may lack a specific conclusion. Higher in the band, there will be a clear attempt to offer an assessment of the ‘To what extent?’ part of the question through a focused conclusion.

Question 15

(a) Define the term: (i) stereotyping [2] (ii) property crime. [2] (b) State two types of crime with high rates of victimisation for elderl…

Accepted Answer

3(a)(i) 2 Define the term stereotyping. Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. an example such as, teenage delinquents. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. a widely held idea about a particular group of people, based on characteristics such as their ethnicity, gender, age etc. These can be oversimplified, often negative and not always true. Accept any other reasonable response. 3(a)(ii) 2 Define the term property crime. Award one mark for a partial definition, e.g. stealing something/theft. Award two marks for a clear definition, e.g. theft of or intentional damage to things/places owned by an individual, group or organisation. Accept any other reasonable response. 3(b) 2 State two types of crime with high rates of victimisation for elderly people. Award one mark for each correct example (up to a maximum of two). Possible responses: • online fraud; • cybercrimes; • identity theft; • theft; • elderly abuse; • financial abuse; • neglect; • any other reasonable response. 3(c) 6 Explain three reasons why some youths join gangs. Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • poverty – Marxism – for those youths that do not have the material goods that society deems as representing success, they may turn to gangs to make this money. They are promised big rewards for little effort and soon become part of organised crime, drug-dealing and trafficking; • community – Cloward and Ohlin – illegitimate opportunity structure – in poorer areas there often exists illegitimate opportunities to be successful alongside the legitimate ones. Successful criminal role models may tempt young people into a life of gang crime as it is normalised within the area; • peer group – peer pressure is intense for young people and the need to fit in becomes so important that some youths may find themselves involved in gang activities and loyalties; • status frustration – Cohen – all young males want status and if they can’t get it legitimately then they may turn to criminal means instead and the gang and the opportunities for success it presents is one such option; • thrills and excitement – postmodernism – youths join gangs because of boredom; gangs are represented as glamourous and fun and the ‘edgework’ they offer seems exciting – Katz and Lyng; • strain theory – Merton – in some societies opportunities for young people are limited, there may be few jobs so those youths who want money and material possessions may turn to a criminal gang life; • culture of masculinity – boys are still expected to be hegemonic males and the values associated with this involve violence, aggression, risk taking behaviour – all the things that a gang can offer them; • socialisation and social control – if a young person is brought up by criminal parents or has older siblings who are involved in crime, they are more likely to be delinquent and join a gang themselves as they are socialised from an early age with deviant values where criminal behaviour is normal and even expected; • consumer society – status is often associated in Western societies with possessions and so there is pressure on young people to acquire status symbols and to consume continuously – this is expensive, however, and so gangs may be a viable temptation to provide the necessary finances; • feminism – girl gangs and female gang members are on the increase and this may be because girls are now having more equal opportunities in life and are rejecting the norms and values associated with passive femininity, e.g. ladette culture, Jackson; • racism/discrimination – ethnic minority involvement in gangs can be explained through the prejudice that permeates many societies and does not give ethnic minority youth the same chances for success as the ethnic majority – gang life can thus be a way of resisting the socially excluding, racist host country; • any other reasonable response. 3(d) Explain three feminist views of crime. 6 Award one mark for each point correctly identified (up to a maximum of three). Award one mark for each point that is developed (up to a maximum of three). Possible responses: • patriarchy – crime happens within a patriarchal society where men expect to be in positions of power over women in all aspects of life and this then leads to crime e.g. sexual assault, domestic violence; • the criminal justice system is male dominated – males dominate the top of the hierarchy, allowing sometimes sexist and misogynistic attitudes to be seen as normal, e.g. rape victims feeling they are being put on trial in the courtroom; • masculinity and femininity – the pressures placed on individuals by society to conform to the expected gender roles means that males are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour than women, e.g. aggression and violence, ‘doing masculinity’ (Messerschmidt); • women as victims of crime – feminists think female victimisation needs to be taken more seriously by the formal agents of social control, e.g. specialist officers to deal with sexual crimes, support for women trapped as victims of domestic violence, an end to the intimate and unnecessary questioning of rape victims in the courtroom about their clothing, make- up and previous sexual history etc; • dark figure of crime – feminists believe that there is a huge hidden figure of crimes against women that are not shown in the official crime statistics. These are typically domestic and sexual crimes; • misogyny – the hatred of women – women are seen as inferior to or as a threat to men. Misogynists assert their dominance over women in many ways and some of these will be criminal, e.g. sexual insults, harassment, assaults and rape. Feminists want these acts to be categorised and dealt with as hate crimes; • socialisation – boys and girls are socialised into different gender roles, e.g. Oakley. The masculine roles that boys learn increase their chances of being involved in crime and deviance compared with the feminine roles that girls are socialised into; • social control – there is greater control over women than men in most societies and women spend a lot of their time at home, in contrast, males have greater freedom outside the home and so have more opportunities to commit crime (Heidensohn); • culture of masculinity – hegemonic masculinity remains the dominant form of masculinity in society and this involves men being in control, physical strength, use of violence, competitive nature. This is what is expected of men and is how they prove their masculinity – crime is very closely aligned to this; • chivalry thesis – Pollack – the idea that women are less likely to be charged and convicted of crime than men because they are treated with more leniency by the police and the courts. Women are traditionally viewed as vulnerable and delicate, not fearful criminals and therefore they are underrepresented in the crime statistics; 3(d) • double deviance – when a woman does not conform to the expected roles of being female and commits crime then she can be severely punished and vilified for her behaviour, e.g. child killers, infanticide; • any other reasonable response. 3(e) Discuss the limitations of self-report studies for measuring crime. 8 Use Table A to mark answers to this question. Possible responses: • validity – there are concerns about the accuracy of the responses gathered. Respondents may exaggerate to impress their peers or under- report crimes committed in order to create a good impression with the researcher; • anonymity – despite assurances that answers given will remain confidential and that no names are needed, many people who have committed an offence may not admit to it, especially if they were never charged by the police. There is always that wariness; • trivial offences – most self-report studies ask about relatively trivial and petty offences or about deviant acts rather than criminal. This limits their usefulness in giving a realistic overview of crime; • ethical issues – respondents are unlikely to give honest answers about serious crimes and if they did do this then ethical issues would be raised for the researcher. Should the researcher report them despite the promise of anonymity?; • sample – self-report studies are typically carried out with young people as it is recognised that adults have a lot to lose and so are very unlikely to answer honestly. The sample size is often small. This means the results are not representative and cannot be generalised from; • individual responses – self-report studies are carried out on individuals and so are not appropriate to investigate crimes such as state, corporate and globally organised; • crimes covered – as well as trivial offences dominating self-report studies, they also rarely ask about crimes associated with adults and therefore present a skewed set of results, e.g. white-collar crimes are rarely asked about. This produces an incomplete picture of crime; • any other reasonable response. 3(f) Evaluate the view that status frustration is the best explanation for 14 crime. Use Table B to mark answers to this question. Possible responses for: • age – Cohen – all young males want respect from their peers. Working class boys, failing at school, feel a lack of status in education and so look for it elsewhere. They may gain respect from their peers by adopting deviant values and committing crime, e.g. taking drugs, vandalism, petty theft etc; • ethnicity – many of the usual ways to gain status in society are blocked for some ethnic minority groups meaning they may be more likely to suffer from status frustration than others. Crime or gang membership may thus be seen as the only ways in which they can gain status; • social class – Cohen argued that status frustration was a working-class issue and derived from educational inequalities. These inequalities caused deviance because working class boys were unable to gain status from their peer group in any other way, hence they turned to crime; • gender – the statistics show that boys commit a lot more crime than girls. Having status in the peer group is essential for boys who want to avoid being labelled as weak or feminine and so turn to crime as a way to secure the respect and status they crave from their peers e.g. Willis ‘the lads’; • strain theory – status frustration is best at explaining crime as it goes further than strain theory to look at why crime is committed in groups and why non utilitarian crime is committed; • any other reasonable response. Possible responses against: • police targeting/stop and search – high rates of deviance for young working-class males may be explained by the fact that the police target certain social groups more than others and so are more likely to discover crime as well as to provoke more crime happening (deviancy amplification) through perceived unfairness in the targeting; • socialisation and social control – criminal behaviour may be learnt from others meaning individuals brought up by criminal parents or with criminal siblings or in areas where crime is a normal part of life, are more likely to turn to crime themselves; • racism, prejudice and discrimination – ethnic minority individuals may commit crime as a response to their experiences of inequality in society (education, criminal justice system. workplace etc). They will therefore feel socially excluded from society and thus be more likely to commit crimes as a form of resistance; • material and relative deprivation – young/working class/ethnic minorities are more likely to be economically deprived than other social groups and this may be the reason for their high rates of crime. This will be exacerbated by the pressures to consume found in advertising that cause the feeling of having less than others around them – consumer society; • culture of masculinity – hegemonic masculinity remains the dominant form of masculinity and the pressure to conform to this is difficult for young males. Masculine values of aggression, violence, lack of emotion and physical strength are very similar to criminal values; 3(f) • power inequalities – high crime rates are often associated with individuals having a lack of power in society which can result in the criminalisation of some people, e.g. working class, ethnic minorities, the young, women (domestic and sexual crimes); • inadequate socialisation – Murray, the New Right – crime can be explained by some individuals not being properly socialised by their parents. Murray associates this with the underclass and blames the decline in marriage and the rise in single parent families for the issues; • any other reasonable response.

Question	Answer	Marks	From
1	see sheet	35	0495/21 May/June 2018
2	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2018
3	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2018
4	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2019
5	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2020
6	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2020
7	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2020
8	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2021
9	see sheet	35	0495/22 Oct/Nov 2022
10	see sheet	35	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2022
11	see sheet	35	0495/21 May/June 2023
12	see sheet	35	0495/22 May/June 2023
13	see sheet	35	0495/21 Oct/Nov 2023
14	see sheet	35	0495/21 May/June 2024
15	see sheet	40	0495/23 Oct/Nov 2025

How do sociologists investigate society? (continued) — Paper 2 · IGCSE Sociology 0495

Questions7 pages

Mark scheme15 answers

Another paper, or another topic

Questions as text

Q1 · According to media representations and official measurements of crime, white-collar crime… 0495/21 May/June 2018

Q2 · Researching why crime is committed is a complex issue due to the many possible… 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2018

Q3 · Researching why crime is committed is a complex issue due to the many possible… 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2018

Q4 · Does deprivation cause crime? 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2019

Q5 · There are official and non-official statistics that measure the crime rate in a society 0495/22 May/June 2020

Q6 · Who commits crime and why do they do it? 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2020

Q7 · Who commits crime and why do they do it? 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2020

Q8 · According to the official crime statistics, some social groups are more likely than… 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2021

Q9 · The judicial system deals with a wide range of crimes such as murder, assault, internet… 0495/22 Oct/Nov 2022

Q10 · In most societies the police are employed to control and prevent crime by using a range… 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2022

Q11 · Crime rates are measured in different ways by sociologists and governments 0495/21 May/June 2023

Q12 · There are many different reasons why individuals commit crime 0495/22 May/June 2023

Q13 · Although there is a dark figure of crime, individuals can learn a lot about crime and… 0495/21 Oct/Nov 2023

Q14 · There are many different types of crime, for example cybercrime and urban crime 0495/21 May/June 2024

Q15 · Define the term: (i) stereotyping [2] (ii) property crime 0495/23 Oct/Nov 2025