Cambridge A Level History 9489 — 2021 Oct/Nov Paper 2 · Variant 2

1 France, 1774–1814 (a) Explain why the National Constituent Assembly introduced the August Decrees. [10] (b) ‘The ideas of the Revolution were ignored by the Directory.’ To what extent do you agree with this view? [20]

Mark scheme: Question Answer Marks 1(a) Explain why the National Constituent Assembly introduced the August 10 Decrees. • To restore calm in the French provinces because, following the storming of the Bastille (14 July 1789), there was mass uproar which spread from Paris to the countryside. • This ‘Great Fear’ saw nobles families attacked and properties destroyed. The latter often occurred irrespective of whether they were noble owned. This frightened the property-owning members of the Assembly. However, they had no means available to restore order by force. • Liberal deputies from the Breton Club (forerunners of the Jacobin movement) believed only a grand gesture by the Assembly, such as reforming the social pattern of the nation, would calm the peasants. • The pressure of the moment led many deputies to go further than they had intended. • Aristocrats’ proponents, such as the Duc d’Aigullion, had a history of support for the cause of patriotic liberty, which includes supporting the military in America in the 1770s. Therefore, there was a perception that they were not posturing, but were driven by idealism. • Answers may focus specifically on the key terms of the August Decrees – abolition of feudalism and privilege of the Church. Accept any other valid responses. 1(b) ‘The ideas of the Revolution were ignored by the Directory.’ To what 20 extent do you agree with this statement? Arguments to support the view could be as follows. The Constitution of 1795 gave the Directory emergency powers to curb press freedom and the freedom of association, more in line with the ‘Ancien Regime’ than the Revolution of 1789. The coups faced by the Directory undermined its authority and made it appear to be solely concerned with political survival as an end, rather than continuing the ideas of the Revolution. Thus, the lack of an initial response to the coup of 1799 may have been because many saw it as a cosmetic move by the Directory – Consuls instead of Directors. In 1797, the Directory nullified elections in 49 departments and excluded 177 deputies. This anti-democratic sentiment, which ran counter to the Revolution’s ideas, resurfaced in 1799 when the Directory attempted to impose its own hand-picked candidates. The suppression of party activity was an attack on the ideas of the Revolution. This meant that those who had previously been politically active were replaced by inexperienced and previously politically inactive people. They followed a more loosely defined set of principles which suggested that the Directory did ignore the ideas of the Revolution. The view can, however, be challenged. The Directory managed to build on the huge achievements of 1791–92, and the 1795 Constitution established a franchise based on the payment of taxes, similar to the 1791 Constitution. For a time, the Directory made democratic institutions work, such as yearly elections and the secret ballot, as required by the 1795 Constitution and in accordance with the Revolution’s democratic ideas (the secret ballot was not adopted by Britain until 1872). There franchise was far broader than that of their British or Dutch neighbours, and the press was remarkably free. All of this is in line with revolutionary ideas. Despite a general economic depression, the Directory was able to maintain, and in some areas, increase French prosperity by 1799. Economic prosperity and security were goals of the Revolution and, indeed, the desire to establish them could be said to have played a large part in bringing about the Revolution of 1789. It is acceptable for responses to seek a definition of the ideas of the Revolution and use this as a template to organise their argument. Accept any other valid responses.

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2 The Industrial Revolution in Britain, 1750–1850 (a) Explain why industrialisation caused urbanisation. [10] (b) ‘By 1850, industrialisation had made little impact on the political system.’ How valid is this view? [20]

Mark scheme: 2(a) Explain why industrialisation caused urbanisation. 10 • Subsistence farming of the rural economy was ended by the use of new farming methods (for example, mechanisation). This made the feeding of a large urban population possible. • Changing methods of production created a huge demand for labour where whole families could be employed. • Transport changes meant that people and goods could be moved with growing ease to urban centres. • Transport changes, such as railway development, led to the creation of new urban centres needed to service them (for example, Crewe and Swindon). • Ports grew because the increase in production resulted in a growth of trade. Accept any other valid responses. 2(b) ‘By 1850, industrialisation had made little impact on the political 20 system.’ How valid is this view? Arguments to support the statement could be as follows. Through its emphasis on property rights, the Representation of the People Act 1832 tied the middle class to the established authority and so maintained the status quo. In Queen Victoria’s first parliament, Lord John Russell set out the finality of the 1832 Act in terms of changes to the representative system. Chartism developed as a result of the 1832 Act failing to provide the lower classes with the political voice and access to the franchise which would provide the means to improve their working and living conditions. The Chartist made numerous demands to change the political system, but none were enacted. After 1848, it had ceased to be a national movement. Peel’s repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) can be seen as a move to preserve the landed interest by compromising to prevent demands for more radical change which would have ended its dominance. The aristocracy maintained their position within the system by adapting to industrialisation. For example, the Duke of Bridgewater’s investment in transport developments, such as canals. The Duke of Hamilton took an active part in industrialisation through his extensive ownership of coal mines. With the exception of Peel, high political offices were the preserve of the aristocracy even after the 1832 Act. The view can be challenged. Industrialisation did appear to have changed the political system at the highest level. Sir Robert Peel was the first Prime Minister (1834‒45 and 1841‒46) who, as the son of a prominent factory owner, came from an industrial business background. Through the employment and business opportunities it created, industrialisation increased the size and wealth of the middle class. This led to an acceptance that this change needed to be reflected in politics. The Reform Act 1832 saw abolitions of ‘Rotten’ and ‘Pocket’ boroughs and the creation of 43 new boroughs, mostly in in northern industrial and commercial towns, which improved representation in Parliament. This indicates a weakening of the dominance of the rural and landed interest. The repeal of the Corn Laws could be seen as a sign that industrial and commercial, not landed, interests would dictate future economic policy. The poor working and living conditions created by industrialisation led to a growing politicisation of the lower classes. They saw political representation as the way to bring about improvements in their conditions. There was a slowly developing acceptance that government should be more active, for example, The Factory Acts of 1819 and 1833. Accept any other valid responses.

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3 The Russian Revolution, 1894–1921 (a) Explain why Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto. [10] (b) To what extent was War Communism a failure? [20]

Mark scheme: 3(a) Explain why Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto. 10 • He was susceptible to pressure, which his advisers applied. The aristocratic advisers feared the regime would collapse, along with their status, if the Tsar did not sign. • In September 1905, the Treaty of Portsmouth ended the Russo-Japanese War. It was feared that the defeated returning troops would join the Revolution. Therefore, signing the Manifesto would prevent the potential loss of army support. • Nicholas II believed it was only a temporary concession and would not undermine his autocratic rule. • Witte persuaded him that in signing the October Manifesto would isolate the more radical left because the concessions would gain the support of the Liberals for the regime. This would create disunity amongst the protestors and prevent revolution. Accept any other valid responses. 3(b) To what extent was War Communism a failure? 20 Arguments to support the statement could be as follows. The failure of War Communism (WC) is evidenced by the fact that it was replaced by the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921. This showed that the Party could not restructure Russia’s economy on ideological lines. The WC policy of grain requisition was seen as effectively one of theft. This alienated peasant support and led to a decline in production because there was no incentive to produce a surplus when no profit was allowed to be made. Famine was created which led to widespread anti-Bolshevik uprisings in 1920‒21. Because one such uprising occurred among the previously staunchly loyal sailors of the Kronstadt Naval Base, Lenin decided to abolish WC and introduce the NEP. If these sailors could rebel because they thought WC was too severe, it posed a serious threat to Party control. WC eliminated money as a form of exchange and replaced it with bartering. This resulted in inflation, and the Party were unable to raise revenue because most taxes had been abolished. Due to the decline in food production under WC, workers in cities saw moving to the countryside to grow their own food as their only hope to avoid starvation. The number of people working dropped by 50%, and by 1920, the average worker’s productivity rate had dropped to 44%, lower than in 1913. The view can be challenged. WC ensured that the Red Army was fed and supplied to be victorious in the civil war. This victory ensured that the Bolsheviks remained in control and could shape Russia in the image they wanted. WC established the principle of nationalisation and centralised control. Under NEP, the Party still controlled what Lenin called ‘the commanding heights of the economy’ (large-scale industry, banking and foreign trade) and it was not lost until the late 20th century. The fact that the NEP was met with widespread opposition within the Party suggests that there was a widespread belief that WC had successfully established the template for how a communist economy should be organised. Lenin was clear that the NEP was only ever to be a temporary policy. Accept any other valid responses.

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4 Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–77 (a) Explain why the Compromise of 1877 was agreed. [10] (b) To what extent were civil liberties limited during the Civil War? [20]

Mark scheme: 4(a) Explain why the Compromise of 1877 was agreed. 10 After the controversial results of the 1876 Presidential election, the Compromise was passed once again which saw the United States at an impasse over who should take power. It signalled the end of the project of Reconstruction. • In February 1877, the Compromise was an informal deal between the Republican Party and Southern Democrats. In return for the Republicans (a) aiding various infrastructure projects and (b) withdrawing federal troops from the South, those Democrats would accept the Republican, Rutherford Hayes, as President. • The Democratic candidate, Samuel Tilden, had not only clearly won the popular vote, but more narrowly led the Electoral College vote. However, twenty Electoral College votes were disputed in Florida, Louisiana and South Carolina. An electoral commission was appointed to rule on these results. Divided on party lines, it awarded all twenty votes to Hayes who, as a result, won the Electoral College by a single vote. • South wanted to end Re-construction. • Republicans wanted to focus attention on economic recovery after the ‘panic’ of 1873. Thus, the Compromise showed that the project of Reconstruction had largely been a failure in that the two halves of the union had not been successfully reunited – at least not in party political terms. Accept any other valid responses. 4(b) To what extent were civil liberties limited during the Civil War? 20 Candidates may discuss the debate about civil liberties in the Civil War including ideas around both whether the respective Presidents, Lincoln and Davis, could limit them and also the effects of the limits they imposed. • The major issues concerning civil liberties were (a) the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus, thus allowing indefinite detention without charge, and (b) the establishment of military tribunals to uphold the laws of war. • Lincoln allowed military leaders to suspend habeas corpus in parts of Maryland as soon as the war had started because it was a strategically important border state which had yet to decide between North and South. Many state representatives were sympathetic to the South whose citizens were detained without charge to prevent a state vote on secession. In this case, military rule worked and Maryland did not secede. • The most famous case of suppression of civil liberties in the North concerned Clement Vallandigham, a leading opponent, who was tried and sentenced by a military tribunal. This punishment aroused a lot of criticism of Lincoln’s administration. • The South followed a similar pattern, limiting habeas corpus and setting up military tribunals, despite historical interpretations to the contrary. • However, in both North and South, elections were held, which suggests that limits on civil liberties were restricted to those who undermined the war effort and encouraged people to support the other side. It was still possible to argue about the politics of the war, about its goals and how long it should be fought. Accept any other valid responses.

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5 The Gilded Age and Progressive Era, 1870s to 1920 (a) Explain why the term ‘robber barons’ was used to describe some late nineteenth-century industrialists. [10] (b) ‘The Progressive Movement was successful in achieving its aims.’ How far do you agree with this view? [20]

Mark scheme: 5(a) Explain why the term ‘robber barons’ was used to describe some late 10 nineteenth-century industrialists. Well known industrialists of the era who were called robber barons included Andrew Carnegie (steel), Jay Gould (railroads), J P Morgan (finance), J D Rockefeller (oil) and Cornelius Vanderbilt (railroads), though there were others. Reasons why they were given this title included: • The belief that they had gained their great wealth and power by using methods which were illegal, immoral and unjust, for example, bribery, share dealings and manipulation. • The belief that these men and their methods were a major cause of the growing inequalities of the Gilded Age, as they exploited the efforts of the workers. • The power of the image of robber barons was used by those keen to criticise the very wealthy few, for example, by liberal journalists and historians. Accept any other valid responses. 5(b) ‘The Progressive Movement was successful in achieving its aims.’ How 20 far do you agree with this view? • The Progressive Movement was a broad-based series of groups and individuals who wanted to reform the worst aspects of modern life to uphold the best features of US life. The three Presidents of this era, two Republican, Theodore Roosevelt and Robert Taft, and one Democrat, Woodrow Wilson, can all be labelled as Progressives. Their reforms were political (to give the people more power), economic (to regulate and control the worst elements of US capitalism) and moral (Prohibition). • In arguing that the Progressive Movement was successful, they achieved the passage of political reforms such as direct elections for US Senators, party primaries, referenda and initiatives and votes for women. Also, they improved regulation of business, especially big business via trust-busting laws and policies, food and drugs laws and railroad fares; government financial policies through the Federal Reserve Board, federal income tax. There was increased investment in conservation with the growth of national parks, especially under Theodore Roosevelt. • In arguing that the Progressive Movement was less successful, many reforms, particularly political and regulatory, had a limited impact. Prohibition was passed in 1919, but its implementation caused more problems, such as crime. It has also been argued that there was neglect of the African American society, especially during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, who was a Southern Democrat. Candidates may discuss the more pronounced successes of Progressive ideas in states which were led by Progressive governors, for example, Robert M La Folette in Wisconsin and Hiram Johnson in California. Accept any other valid responses.

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6 The Great Crash, the Great Depression and the New Deal policies, 1920–41 (a) Explain why farmers experienced difficulties during the 1920s. [10] (b) ‘Roosevelt’s efforts to stabilise the banking system were the most significant achievement of the First New Deal.’ How far do you agree? [20] Section C: International option International history, 1870–1945

Mark scheme: 6(a) Explain why farmers experienced difficulties during the 1920s. 10 • As farming techniques improved, farmers started producing more food. This had been welcomed during the years of the First World War as the United States exported food to countries like Britain. • However, the demand for grain fell in America because of Prohibition and changes in tastes in food. This led to overproduction of some products. • There was also less demand from Europeans for food from America because they were growing their own crops after the devastation of war and there was a tariff war – the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act 1922 had led to European countries imposing tariffs on American goods. This meant American goods, including foodstuffs, were too expensive to buy in Europe. • These problems meant that farmers could not afford to produce the new machinery which was being produced which in turn led to a fall in profits. • It is possible to suggest that the Depression began for farmers during the 1920s. Accept any other valid responses. 6(b) ‘Roosevelt’s efforts to stabilise the banking system were the most 20 significant achievement of the First New Deal.’ How far do you agree? Impact of banking policies: • By 1933, about 9000 banks, holding the savings of 27 million families, had failed. Of those bank failings, 1456 folded in 1932 alone. Farm foreclosures were averaging 20 000 a month. • Roosevelt immediately declared a national bank holiday, which closed all banks. In just four days, his aides drafted the Emergency Banking Relief Act, which permitted solvent banks to reopen under government supervision and allowed the RFC to buy the stock of troubled banks and keep them open until they could be reorganised. The law also gave the president broad powers over the Federal Reserve System. The law radically reshaped the nation's banking system and Congress passed the law in just eight hours. • The Act was designed to give people confidence and re-float the economy – in a fireside chat, Roosevelt said: “I can assure you that it is safer to keep your money in a reopened bank than under the mattress”. Other policies in the first 100 days: • Roosevelt used his ‘fireside chats’ to appeal directly to Americans to trust him and his policies – he started these in his first 100 days. • Other acts passed in the first 100 days – Prices had fallen so low that it no longer paid for many farmers to plant crops. To prevent the crop surpluses that led to low prices, the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) called, for the first time, for the government to pay farmers not to plant. • Other Alphabet Acts were also passed, including the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which gave work to 250 000 men, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which assisted in economic development in the Tennessee valley, and the Public Works Administration (PWA), which supervised the construction of public works. • These policies and their impact can also be discussed as part of the wider First New Deal. Accept any other valid responses.

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7 Empire and the emergence of world powers, 1870–1919 (a) Explain why Japan succeeded in defeating Russia in the Russo–Japanese War of 1904–05. [10] (b) How important was the Spanish–American War of 1898 in changing the focus of US foreign policy? [20]

Mark scheme: 7(a) Explain why Japan succeeded in defeating Russia in the Russo‒ 10 Japanese War of 1904‒05. Factors might cover both the strengths of the Japanese and the weaknesses of the Russians and include: • Japan had a modern and well-equipped fleet. • Japanese were fighting close to their home base and had easy lines of communication and support. • Japan launched a surprise attack on poorly equipped and numerically inferior Russian forces in Port Arthur. • Trans-Siberian Railway was not adequate to transfer sufficient support to troops in Port Arthur. • British impeded Russian attempts to transfer Baltic Fleet to Far East. • Baltic fleet sunk ignominiously at Battle of Tsushima. Accept any other valid responses. 7(b) How important was the Spanish‒American War of 1898 in changing the 20 focus of US foreign policy? Well-constructed responses will include a consideration of the effects of the Spanish-American War, setting these against other possible influences on the direction of US policy. Spanish American War: It was a major step outside the continental boundaries of the US. It gave the US an overseas Empire which they then needed to defend and maintain. It led to further steps like Open Door Policy in China. It re-focusses the US public from internal expansion to overseas growth. Other factors: There was concern over European imperialist expansion, as seen in the Scramble for Africa and a potential threat to the Monroe doctrine. There was pressure from industrialists for development of overseas trade. The presidential leadership of McKinley and then Roosevelt (Roosevelt Corollary) was also significant. It had the support of the ‘yellow’ press. The US became involved in the Panama Canal Project. Accept any other valid responses.

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8 The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s (a) Explain why Franco–German relations improved after 1924. [10] (b) How important were the Agencies in the work of the League of Nations in the 1920s? [20]

Mark scheme: 8(a) Explain why Franco‒German relations improved after 1924. 10 In the aftermath of the occupation of the Ruhr, numerous factors led to improvement: • The Dawes Plan settled the issue of reparations, at least in the short term. • A new currency in Germany stabilised economy and improved economy. • A positive relationship between Gustav Stresemann and Aristide Briand. • The Locarno treaty confirming western borders of Germany with France (and Belgium) and led to German admission into the League of Nations. Accept any other valid responses. 8(b) How important were the Agencies in the work of the League of Nations 20 in the 1920s? Responses will need to try to establish a comparison between the work of the Agencies and the work of the main organs of the League. Agencies of the League The Court of International Justice made judgements on shipping and fisheries issues, but no powers of enforcement. The Health Committee made limited progress in fight against Malaria and Leprosy. The ILO improved working conditions in many countries but failed to get full international agreement of 48 hour working week. In 1920, the Refugees Committee returned half a million prisoners of war home and provided support for thousands of Turkish refugees in 1922. The Mandates Commission established mandatory controls over former German and Turkish territories (but in effect just gave control to the victorious nations of WW). The Slavery Commission and Slavery Convention 1926 successfully campaigned for freedom of 200 000 slaves in Sierra Leonne and Burma. Organs of the League There were successes in settling disputes peacefully in the Aaland Islands, Silesia Coalfields dispute and Greco-Bulgarian border dispute, etc. These should be measured against failures in the Poland-Lithuania conflict over Vilnius, Corfu crisis, etc. Many key decisions were made in the ‘Conference of Ambassadors’ (representatives of main powers) and were simply rubber-stamped by the League. The Secretariat was constantly understaffed and as a result were often unable to function. Accept any other valid responses.

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9 China and Japan, 1912–45 (a) Explain why there was an outbreak of protests in China beginning on 4 May 1919. [10] (b) To what extent did Japanese plans for a Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere explain the attack on Pearl Harbor? [20]

Mark scheme: 9(a) Explain why there was an outbreak of protests in China beginning on 4 10 May 1919. Though most responses will probably focus on immediate causes, there is some scope for mentioning longer term issues, so factors that might be discussed include: • The failure of the democratic government in the wake of the abdication of the Emperor. • The rise of warlordism and the ineffectiveness of the Beijing government. • The New Culture Movement: rejection of Confucian ideals as being responsible for Chinese weakness. • Anger over treatment of China at Versailles. • Anger over transfer of German ‘sphere of influence’ in Shandong to Japan. Accept any other valid responses. 9(b) To what extent did Japanese plans for a Greater East Asia Co-prosperity 20 Sphere explain the attack on Pearl Harbor? There is an opportunity here for a basic comparison between the importance of Japan’s economic ambitions and other factors. Significance of GEACS This requires some explanation of what Japan hoped to achieve in expansion of interests. This clearly conflicted with US interests in Far East: Philippines and China. Strength and significance of US Fleet presented a potential challenge to the policy of expansion. All these need linking to the objectives of Japan in attacking Pearl Harbor. Other factors: Japanese held a long-term resentment of US policies towards Japanese migrants. There was also resentment of US support for Chinese KMT government in Sino-Japanese war. Trade restrictions imposed on Japan in 1939‒40, particularly in military supplies and oil products such as aviation fuel, as well as the cancellation of a trade treaty which led to trade embargo all increased tensions. The war in Europe left the US as the only obstacle to Japanese expansion. The strategic significance of Pearl Harbour was also a factor. Accept any other valid responses.

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